维基百科

草稿:电子游戏与暴力

电子游戏自诞生以来，就常被批评含有暴力元素。许多政客、家长及活动家宣称电子游戏与暴力行为有联系，特别是与青少年的暴力行为有联系。美国心理学会认为尽管带有暴力元素的电子游戏与冒犯性的行为有关，但将暴力行为都归咎于带有暴力元素的电子游戏是“不科学的说法”[1][2]。

背景

编辑

自20世纪90年代末以来，因为人们认为犯罪嫌疑人可能有玩暴力电子游戏的历史，一些可能与游戏有关的暴力事件被大肆宣传。1999年的科伦拜校园事件造成了道德恐慌，使得学者们开始研究带有暴力元素的电子游戏是否会影响现实中的行为[3][页码请求]。一些研究发现游玩有暴力元素的电子游戏会增加或减少亲社会行为（英语：prosocial behavior），或者与其增减有相关性[4][5]，其他研究则认为带有暴力元素的电子游戏根本就没有这样的功能[6]。2005年，美国娱乐软件协会主席在接受公共广播电视公司采访时否认带有暴力元素的电子游戏会导致反社会行为，他在采访中说：“坦率地说，这是不了解这个行业的人在过分夸大其词”[7][与来源不符]。此外，还有一些人认为电子游戏行业成了现实中各类社会问题的替罪羊[8][9][10]，玩电子游戏本身对青少年有积极的影响[11][12]。

公众的一种主要担忧是，由于电子游戏受众中有很大一部分是年轻人，因此特别容易受到电子游戏特别是其中的暴力元素的影响[7]。2022年进行的一项大规模研究发现至少有1/4的玩家年龄介乎10岁和20岁间[13]，此外一项针对12至17岁间，1102位青少年的研究发现，1102人中有97%在访谈的前一天玩过电子游戏，这97%的人群中，又有14%的女孩和50%的男孩喜欢玩“M”（包含适合17岁以上玩家的内容）或“AO”（内容只适合18岁以上的成人）评级的游戏，而有25%的家长在购买游戏前根本不会查看评级[14]。

历史

编辑

电子游戏诞生前

编辑

在历史上，人们曾对漫画杂志抱有与电子游戏类似的道德恐慌。1950年代，美国进入漫画黄金时代，随着产业的发展，一些艺术家和出版商开始出版、发行更频繁地描绘暴力和其他擦边内容的漫画。1954年，精神病学家弗雷德里克·魏特汉出版了《纯真的诱惑（英语：Seduction of the Innocent）》一书，宣称漫画中的暴力情节会诱导青少年去模仿，从而引发犯罪行为。即便魏特汉的一些说法后来被发现并不严谨，这本书还是引起了道德恐慌，迫使漫画行业规范作品。同年，漫画行业组建了漫画准则管理局，严格规范内容，通过自我审查消除了大部分暴力和其他承认内容。其后，主流漫画业逐渐衰落，而成人漫画的地下市场则逐渐形成。直到接近20年后，漫画行业才从漫画监管局的规定中恢复过来，但不再那么严格地遵守漫画准则管理局的要求。进入千禧年后，人们普遍不再考虑漫画准则管理局的要求[15]。也因此，人们常把对漫画杂志的恐慌和对游戏的恐慌相提并论。而游戏开发商也会尽量避免自我审查，以免影响销量[16][17]。

弹珠台和漫画杂志的境遇相似，在20世纪50、60年代的美国，叛逆的青少年经常会在弹珠台旁闲逛，有代沟的老一辈美国人无法理解这些青少年，因此对这些青年人感到恐慌。在一些人看来，弹珠台似乎是一种赌博（这导致弹珠台上往往贴有“仅供娱乐”的标签），而信奉宗教的人更担心弹球是“魔鬼的工具”。由于民众对弹珠台产生了道德恐慌，许多城市不得不限制甚至禁止弹珠台，不过这些禁令大都只维持到了70年代初。比如，纽约在1976年前一直禁止人们玩弹珠台[18]，芝加哥的禁令则一直维持到了1977年[19]。随着电子游戏的出现，叛逆的青少年们将目光从弹珠台上转移到了电子游戏上，弹珠台的禁令也是在电子游戏出现后没多久后被纷纷解除的，但人们对弹珠台的担忧也部分转移到了电子游戏上[20]。

1970–1980年代

编辑

在《乓》火遍街机游戏界后，街机游戏制作商意识到了电子游戏的潜力，并试图将其推广开来；制作商们先在酒吧和酒廊推出新款的电子游戏，这让他们在内容上有了更大的创作空间——虽然仍遭到一些人批评[20]。在1976年前就已经有两款街机电子游戏因不道德的内容而受到公众关注：1973年雅达利制作的迷宫游戏《Gotcha（英语：Gotcha (video game)）》出厂时，游戏机的两个操纵杆上覆有代表女性乳房的粉红圆球，不过后来版本的游戏机更换了操纵杆的样式。1975年雅达利未经授权改编自同名电影的《大白鲨（英语：Shark Jaws）》包含了大量暴力内容，不过该款游戏中玩家扮演的是被大白鲨追杀的人类[20]。随着街机游戏进一步铺开，这些游戏最终引起了公众的担忧[20]。

1976年的街机电子游戏《死亡飞车》往往被认为是第一个以暴力内容为卖点的游戏，这款游戏与《大白鲨》一样，也是一款未经授权改编自电影的游戏。这款游戏的游戏机器上就有着大量与死亡相关的符号，而在游戏中玩家被要求在时限内驾车碾过尽可能多的葛雷姆林[20]。这引起了美联社记者温迪·沃克的注意，她联系了游戏的制作商Exidy，并向他们表明了她的担忧[21]。沃克的担忧随后传到了其他媒体机构那里，比如美国全国安全委员会，该委员会后来指责这款游戏美化了碾压他人的行为，而当时美国全国安全委员会正试图对驾驶员们进行安全驾驶教育。虽说一些街机厅后来因为沃克的担忧退回了游戏机，但伴随着媒体曝光，该款机器的总体销量不减反增[22]。这款游戏之前的不少游戏也含有暴力元素，比如《警察和小偷（英语：Cops 'n' Robbers）》、《坦克》和《喷气式战斗机（英语：Jet Fighter (video game)）》，但这些游戏都没有像《死亡飞车》一样引起这么大的争议。雅达利的诺兰·布什内尔这么解释：“我们雅达利有一条内部规定，不允许对人使用暴力。在游戏里你可以炸坦克，你可以炸飞碟，但你不能直接炸人。我们认为直接炸人不妥，在我任职期间，我们一直恪守这一规定。”[20]

美国军医总监查尔斯·埃弗雷特·库普（英语：C. Everett Koop）是第一批公开认为电子游戏可能导致青少年暴力的人之一。1982年，库普以个人身份撰文表示“越来越多的人”开始认同电子游戏可能对青少年的身心健康有不良影响，尽管当时还未有充分的证据得到任何结论[23][24]。

1990年代

编辑

《真人快打》及1993年美国国会电子游戏听证会

编辑
参见：真人快打相关争议

1992年发售的街机格斗游戏《真人快打》包含有大量血腥场面，游戏中还出现了“必杀技（英语：Fatality (Mortal Kombat)）”的玩法，即终结敌人时使用的标志性、更为血腥的攻击方式。《真人快打》走红后，业界涌现了一批带有暴力元素的电子游戏，不过，这些游戏是街机独占式的游戏，因此一般会被与面向青少年的非暴力游戏区分开来[25][26]。然而，家用游戏机厂商们在《真人快打》走红后都想移植该款作品到自家主机上，特别是当时正处在游戏机大战（英语：console war）中，争夺美国市场的世嘉和任天堂两家[27]。世嘉移植版的《真人快打》保留了街机版的所有血腥场面（但需要使用作弊码才能激活），任天堂版则去掉了大部分血腥场面，红色的血液也被灰色的“汗液”代替。然而，世嘉版的销量最终远超任天堂版[26]。

《真人快打》、《午夜陷阱》和《致命执法者（英语：Lethal Enforcers）》三款游戏的爆火引来了美国参议员乔·利伯曼和赫伯·科尔（英语：Herb Kohl）二人的注意。1993-1994年间，二人主持了两场国会听证会，与业界、电子游戏公司代表和相关群体探讨电子游戏中的暴力问题[26]。世嘉及任天堂等电子游戏公司皆被批评缺乏完善的电子游戏分级制度，利伯曼威胁说如果电子游戏公司不自行整改，国会将采取行动规范行业[28]。在第二次听证会中，世嘉、任天堂和其他厂商就成立娱乐软件分级委员会进行自愿评级达成了一致，该委员会最终于1994年落地[29][30]。这两场听证会还促使业界成立了负责管理娱乐软件分级委员会的互动数字软件协会，后改称娱乐软件协会[30][31]。

杰克·汤普森

编辑
主条目：杰克·汤普森 § 电子游戏官司

已被除牌的美国律师杰克·汤普森批评说一些电子游戏含有淫秽内容，并组织活动攻击开发商和发售商。他认为，带有暴力元素的电子游戏是青少年排练暴力事件计划的“杀人模拟器”，这些游戏和一些校园惨案之间的联系密不可分。

科伦拜校园事件

编辑

1999年4月20日，埃里克·哈里斯和迪伦·克莱伯德在美国科罗拉多州杰佛逊县哥伦拜恩高中枪杀13人，随后自杀。两名行凶者后被发现是包括《毁灭战士》在内一批带有暴力元素的电子游戏的忠实粉丝。由于是次事件导致公众认为电子游戏与枪击案有关联，国会举行了听证会，比尔·克林顿总统下令调查校园枪击案以及电子游戏是如何向青少年销售的[32]。2004年，美国特勤局和美国教育部联合发布的报告中发现，12%的校园枪击案犯罪者对电子游戏感兴趣[32][33]。

哥伦拜恩枪击案发生后，媒体开始重审之前发生的枪击案，发现1998年韦斯特赛德中学枪击案（英语：1998 Westside Middle School shooting）的两名主谋也喜欢玩各种第一人称射击游戏，还曾一起玩《黄金眼007》[34][35]。

2000年代

编辑

《侠盗猎车手III》及相关诉讼

编辑

2001年，Rockstar Games在PlayStation 2平台上发售了《侠盗猎车手III》，该款游戏允许玩家控制主人公克劳德在一座现代都市中进行城市黑社会犯罪活动。该款游戏还是第一批开放世界游戏，允许玩家自由控制完成任务的方式，玩家可以在游戏中斗殴、打枪或是飙车。游戏发售后大卖，在6个月内售出200万份[36]。游戏的大火使得游戏中的暴力等元素被数个团体批评[37][38]。Rockstar在随后的三年里又发售了两款续作，《侠盗猎车手：罪恶都市》和《侠盗猎车手：圣安地列斯》，《圣安地列斯》自带了一个无法通过正常方式游玩的热咖啡模组，其中含有露骨的性爱内容。事件发生后不久，美国政府决定采取行动。2005年，加利福尼亚州政府宣布禁止向未成年人出售带有暴力内容的电子游戏[39]。

之后的几年里，一批青少年犯罪及谋杀案被发现与侠盗猎车手系列游戏有关。杰克·汤普森代表受害者将Rockstar、Take-Two Interactive和索尼告上法庭，声称侠盗猎车手系列游戏中的暴力内容直接导致了罪案频发，要求三家公司进行赔偿。然而，这些诉讼最终要么被自愿撤诉，要么在判决前就已被驳回。汤普森本人也同意不再对Take-Two Interactive采取法律行动，不过他后来成为了一名反暴力电子游戏的活动人士[40]。BBC后来制作了一部纪录片《游戏改变者（英语：The Gamechangers）》记录这一事件。

温嫩登校园枪击案

编辑

2009年3月11日，一名枪手来到了德国温嫩登的阿尔贝维尔实科中学，随后射杀多人。事后调查发现枪手喜欢玩反恐精英系列电子游戏和《孤岛惊魂2》[41][42]。在随后的几周里，德国政界和相关人士向政府施压，要求立法禁止在国内销售带有暴力元素的电子游戏，但这一要求最终未能达成[43][44][45]。

《使命召唤：现代战争2》及“别说俄语”关卡

编辑
主条目：No Russian

2009年发售的第一人称射击游戏《使命召唤：现代战争2》包含了一个极具争议的任务关卡：“别说俄语”。在这一关里玩家会扮演一名中情局特工，奉命渗透一个恐怖组织并取得信任，因此他必须参加在莫斯科国际机场的屠杀任务；组织头目为了让人们认为这次恐怖袭击由美国策划，在开始袭击前，对所有袭击者说“Remember, no Russian”（直译为“记住，不要说俄语”，但也有“要杀光现场的俄国人”的意思）。玩家准备开始单人模式之前，游戏会询问玩家是否跳过本关，因为本关有“令人不适的内容”。跳过本关不会惩罚玩家，也不会影响玩家的游戏进度。这一关最后组织头目会杀害主角，并表示自己早已知道主角的真实身份，他的真正目的是引发俄美战争，如果人们发现有中情局特工参与恐怖袭击的话正好能够达到这个目的。

在《使命召唤：现代战争2》正式发布之前，这一关的内容就已被提前泄露到了互联网上，迫使发行商动视和制作商Infinity Ward对记者和活动家的批评做出回应。动视回应说，画面确实来自本游戏，但强调这一任务并不代表游戏其他部分，并且给出了关卡在游戏剧情中的上下文[46][47]。游戏正式发布后，这一关仍饱受批评，一些记者说这表示电子游戏产业仍不成熟[48]。该任务被视为电子游戏行业的分水岭，因为自这之后，像“别说俄语”关卡这样的游戏内容被公众认为是不应出现在游戏中的内容[49][50]。

2010年代

编辑

布朗诉娱乐商业协会案

编辑
主条目：布朗诉娱乐商业协会案

为解决带有暴力内容的电子游戏的问题，美国多个州一度通过了限制向儿童出售“M”评级电子游戏的法律，尤其是含有暴力或性内容的游戏。电子游戏行业团体在法庭上反对这些法律，并赢得了不少诉讼[51][52]。其中最重要的案件是对2005年加利福尼亚州通过的法律的挑战，该法禁止向未成年人出售“M”评级的游戏，并要求在娱乐软件分级委员会的分级基础上使用更严格的内容分级系统。电子游戏行业团体在地方法庭反对这一法律，并在地方法庭胜诉，但该案随即被带到美国最高法院。在布朗诉娱乐商业协会案中，最高法院裁定电子游戏为传媒形式之一，故而受到美国宪法第一修正案的保护，而像加利福尼亚州这样，以米勒测试之外的依据阻止销售的法律是违宪的[53]。大法官安东宁·斯卡利亚为该案撰写了裁决书的主要观点，他写道电子游戏中的暴力内容和《格林童话》中的暴力内容之间并没有什么区别[54]。

桑迪胡克小学枪击案

编辑

2012年12月14日，亚当·兰扎在桑迪胡克小学内枪杀26人后自杀。根据调查人员的说法，亚当·兰扎曾购入大量电子游戏，其中包括一些具有暴力元素的电子游戏[55][56]。这一发现在政界和媒体界引起了新一轮反对暴力电子游戏的呼声[57][58]，美国副总统乔·拜登会见了一批电子游戏行业的代表[59]。美国全国步枪协会说电子游戏产业，特别是背景设置在学校内的射击游戏是桑迪胡克小学枪击案的罪魁祸首[60][61]。

2016年慕尼黑枪击案

编辑

2016年，18岁的大卫·阿里·桑波里在德国巴伐利亚慕尼黑莫萨赫的奥林匹亚购物中心（英语：Olympia-Einkaufszentrum）枪杀9人后自杀。德国联邦内政和国土部部长托马斯·德迈齐埃在事后宣称，“互联网上美化暴力的游戏泛滥成灾，对青少年的成长也产生了有害影响。任何有理智的人都不会否认这一点”[62]。他的发言遭到媒体专家迈克·毛什的批评，毛什说，“没有一个理智的科学家敢如此肯定地说出这样的话。而如果没有科学家敢这么说，也就不应该有政府部长敢这么说”[63]。

玛乔丽·斯通曼·道格拉斯高中枪击案

编辑

2018年2月14日，19岁的尼古拉斯·克鲁兹进入佛罗里达州帕克兰的玛乔丽·斯通曼·道格拉斯高中枪杀17人，并重伤多人。肯塔基州州长马特·贝文随即呼吁美国应该重新审视“交到青少年手里的东西”[64]，特别是“让人们对人的生命价值变得不敏感”的“被反复提及的电子游戏”[65]。事发一个月后，美国总统唐纳德·特朗普在华盛顿特区会见了一些行业的代表和倡议者，讨论带有暴力内容的电子游戏的影响：出席者包括娱乐软件协会总裁麦克·加拉格尔、娱乐软件分级委员会总裁帕特里夏·万斯、ZeniMax Media首席执行官罗伯特·奥特曼、Take-Two首席执行官斯特劳斯·泽尔尼克、媒体研究中心（英语：Media Research Center）的布伦特·博泽和家长电视委员会（英语：Parents Television Council）的梅丽莎·亨森。会议期间电子游戏行业的代表仍坚称带有暴力内容的电子游戏和暴力行为之间缺乏联系，而批评者也仍坚称电子游戏行业应当限制青少年接触电子游戏，就像应当限制青少年接触酒类或是香烟一样[66]。

苏扎诺市校园枪击案

编辑

2019年3月13日，吉尔默·蒙泰罗和露易兹·卡斯特罗进入巴西圣保罗州苏扎诺的巴西劳尔教授中学射杀8人，随后自杀。巴西副总统汉密尔顿·莫朗随后表示这起枪击案可能是年轻人沉迷于暴力电子游戏的结果，还声称巴西父母的日常工作使年轻人更难得到正确的教育[67]。巴西的游戏玩家们则在社交媒体上使用#SomosGamersNãoAssassinos（“#我们是玩家不是杀人犯”）表示抗议[68]。

埃尔帕索枪击案及代顿枪击案

编辑

2019年8月3日，21岁的帕特里克·伍德·克鲁修斯在德克萨斯州埃尔帕索的一家沃尔玛商店枪杀23人，并重伤多人。同日，24岁的康纳·史蒂芬·贝茨在俄亥俄州代顿的一家酒吧中枪杀9人，重伤多人。这两起事件再度引起了电子游戏导致暴力的说法。唐纳德·特朗普在两场枪击案几日后发表声明：“我们必须停止在我们的社会中颂扬暴力，比如现今常见的一些可怕的、令人毛骨悚然的电子游戏。”[69]众议院少数党领袖凯文·麦卡锡同样认为电子游戏是罪魁祸首，说：“我始终认为，这是关乎我们后代和每个人的问题。我们已经从研究中看到了它对个人的影响，从这些枪击案的照片中可以看到电子游戏和其他游戏中的行为。”[32]新闻机构和电子游戏行业重申了过去的研究结果，即电子游戏和暴力行为之间没有必然联系，并批评政客们在应当进行枪支管制的时候将责任全都推给电子游戏[69][32]。

萨勒河畔哈雷犹太会堂枪击案

编辑

2019年10月9日，27岁的史蒂芬·巴利特在德国萨克森-安哈尔特萨勒河畔哈雷的一间犹太会堂附近射杀两人，射伤两人（英语：Halle synagogue shooting），巴利特在作案时通过Facebook和Twitch进行直播，并在直播中发表了极右翼反犹言论[70]。德国内政部长霍斯特·泽霍费尔在事后表示“许多犯罪者或潜在犯罪者来自于游戏圈”[71]，他的言论被德国游戏玩家和政治家所批评德国社会民主党总书记拉尔斯·克林拜尔说：“问题出在右翼极端主义上，而非游戏玩家或者别的什么”[72]。

2020年代

编辑

托雷翁塞万提斯学院枪击案

编辑

2020年1月10日，11岁的荷西·安赫尔·拉莫斯·贝茨在墨西哥科阿韦拉州托雷翁的塞万提斯学院枪杀1人，打伤6人后自杀（英语：Colegio Cervantes shooting）。州长米格尔·安赫尔·里克尔梅·索利斯（英语：Miguel Ángel Riquelme Solís）在枪击案后几小时宣布，贝茨在作案时穿着一件印有《物竞天择》模组logo的衬衫，并表示他可能是受游戏影响作案[73]。州长的言论随即引发争议，墨西哥国立自治大学心理学院的埃里克·萨拉萨尔·弗洛雷斯表示，对那些希望忽视问题本身复杂性的当局来说，将暴力归咎于电子游戏是一种“简单的办法”[74]。下加利福尼亚自治大学（英语：Autonomous University of Baja California）的社会学家达利拉·巴伦苏埃拉评论说虽然电子游戏可能会影响青少年的行为，但家长们要负最主要的责任[75]。

纳赫尔·梅尔祖克抗议

编辑

2023年6月，17岁的北非裔法国人纳赫尔·梅尔祖克在巴黎郊区楠泰尔被一名警察开枪击毙，随后引发大规模的抗议和暴乱。法国总统埃马纽埃尔·马克龙在同月批评电子游戏“毒害”一些青年骚乱者[76]。

研究

编辑

The policy statement of the American Psychological Association (APA) related to video games states "Scant evidence has emerged that makes any causal or correlational connection between playing violent video games and actually committing violent activities."[69] The APA has acknowledged that violent video games strongly correlates with aggressive behavior, as well as anti-social behavior, but distinguishes between aggression and violence. A 2015 APA review of current studies in this area described the link between violent video games and aggressive behavior as "both as an increase in negative outcomes such as aggressive behavior, cognition, and affect and as a decrease in positive outcomes such as prosocial behavior, empathy, and sensitivity to aggression."[77] However, the APA recognized the studies tended to be disproportionate to normal demographics.[77]

Further, the APA issued a policy statement in 2017 aimed at politicians and media to urge them to avoid linking violent video games with violent crimes, reiterating the subject of their findings over the years.[78] In a follow-up statement in 2020, the APA reaffirmed that there remains insufficient evidence to link video games to violent behavior. They had found that there was "small, reliable association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes, such as yelling and pushing," but could not extend that to more violent activities.[79]

Christopher Ferguson, a professor at Stetson University and a researcher on the connection between violent video games and violent behavior, has stated that "[t]here's not evidence of a correlation, let alone a causation" between videogames and violence.[80] Ferguson's more recent studies have shown that there is no predictive behavior that can be inferred from the playing of violent video games.[81][82]

A longitudinal study published in Molecular Psychiatry in 2021 found no significant changes in semantic accessibility to aggressive words, frustration tolerance, empathy, or prosocial behavior between those who played a violent video game and those who played a non-violent video game daily for two months.[83] Similarly, a 2023 study published in eLife found that playing violent video games, specifically "Grand Theft Auto V," does not decrease empathy in players. The research used fMRI and behavioral tests to measure empathy and found no significant evidence of reduced empathetic responses or emotional reactions to violence in players.[84]

暴力网络游戏的负面影响

编辑

有关电子游戏负面影响的理论往往侧重于探讨玩家会模仿游戏中的行为。由于游戏所具有的互动性，这些影响可能要比其他媒体造成的类似影响更严重。关于此类影响的最著名理论是认知新联想理论（也称为脚本理论），该理论认为，玩带有暴力内容的电子游戏可能会产生攻击性的“认知脚本”，当玩家认为他人的行为具有敌意时，这些脚本就会被激活[85]。因此，玩带有暴力内容的电子游戏就成了玩家演练攻击行为的机会，从而导致人们在现实生活中变得更具攻击性。元理论模型“一般攻击模型”被用于将各种理论统合以共同解释攻击行为，在电子游戏相关的研究中，一般攻击模型认为攻击认知、攻击情感、生理唤醒相互作用，并最终引起攻击行为[86]。一些学者对一般攻击模型提出了批评，认为该模型错误地假定攻击行为主要是通过后天学习获得的，还错误地假定大脑无法区分虚拟与现实[87]。最近的一些研究更明指，有证据表明短期接触暴力电子游戏不会让人们产生攻击性情绪和行为[88][89][90]。

家长们可以通过监督孩子们的游玩过程使孩子们远离游戏中的暴力内容。

一些探讨攻击性行为的生物学理论因证据过于薄弱，特别排除了电子游戏和其他媒体可能造成的影响。例如，素质—压力模式模型中的“催化剂模型”认为人的攻击性是由基因和环境压力共同作用产生的，还认为压力和反社会人格是导致攻击性行为的最突出因素。“催化剂模型”认为，家长或是同辈可能会造成人们产生攻击性，但媒体和电子游戏则不可能[91][92]。

研究方法

编辑

Research has focused on two elements of the effects of video games on players: the player's health measures and educational achievements as a function of game play amounts; the players' behavior or perceptions as a function of the game's violence levels;[93] the context of the game play in terms of group dynamics; the game's structure which affects players' visual attention or three dimensional constructional skills; and the mechanics of the game which affects hand–eye coordination.[94] Two other research methods that have been used are experimental (in a laboratory), where the different environmental factors can be controlled, and non-experimental, where those who participate in studies simply log their video gaming hours.[4]

科学界的争论

编辑

一种常见的理论认为，玩带有暴力元素的电子游戏会增加青少年的攻击性。许多研究声称得到了支持这一假设的结果[4][95][96]，但也有不少研究认为二者之间没有任何关联[97][98]。正反两方面的学者之间仍在激烈争论[99][100]。

初步研究

编辑

1998年，史蒂文·柯什在学术期刊《童年》中写道，游玩电子游戏会导致敌对归因偏差（英语：hostile attribution bias），他让55名受试者分成两组，分别玩暴力的和非暴力的电子游戏。之后，受试者被要求阅读人物行为模糊的故事，柯什发现被选中玩带有暴力元素电子游戏的受试者更有可能对故事做出负面解释[101]。安德森和迪尔在2000年进行的另一项研究发现，在大学生中，玩带有暴力元素的电子游戏与暴力犯罪之间存在相关性，在激进的男性玩家中，这种相关性更强[102]，但有学者指出这项研究的结果并无一致性，研究方法也有缺陷[103]。

2001年，美国医务总监（英语：Surgeon General of the United States）大卫·撒切尔（英语：David Satcher）说：“我们显然将媒体暴力与攻击性行为联系在了一起。但与其他因素相比，这种影响非常小。有些人可能对此不满意，但这就是科学。”[104]

2002年，美国特勤局对41名校园枪击案的肇事者进行了调查，结果发现，其中有12%的人喜欢玩带有暴力元素的电子游戏，24%的人喜欢阅读暴力书籍，27%的人喜欢看暴力电影[105]。一些学者指出，与一般青少年相比，这些数字异常低[106]。

2003年，爱荷华州立大学的一项研究分析了儿童看法与暴力之间的关系[107]。这项研究针对5-12岁的儿童展开，具体研究他们一般每周玩电子游戏的时间，及对原有移情能力的影响。研究者要求受试者分两组，分别游玩约15分钟的暴力电子游戏和非暴力电子游戏，并记录孩子们的脉搏及游玩过程中的挫败感。其后，研究员给孩子们展示一些画有日常情景的图画，有的孩子在看到日常情景的图画后更容易产生攻击性行为，而有的孩子则更容易产生共情行为。研究的结果是没有找到短期内电子游戏对儿童有影响的证据，两种游戏的影响之间也不存在显著差异，标明孩子们不会因为短期游玩暴力游戏而减少共情。不过，在实验开始前的统计中，长期游玩暴力电子游戏的儿童共情能力偏低，这表明暴力电子游戏可能有长期的影响。也有可能这些电子游戏没有让儿童对特定的攻击情景产生共鸣。这些数据可能表明，儿童在长期接触电子游戏后会出现心理脱敏的问题，但并非所有儿童都受到同样的影响。研究人员还推断，有些儿童可能更容易受到负面影响，且可能15分钟的时间还不足以产生短期的认知影响。

2003年，托雷多大学心理学系的珍妮·B·丰克等人研究了四五年级学生接触媒体中和现实生活中的暴力，与心理脱敏（具体表现包括丧失同理心、改变对暴力行为的看法）之间的关系。丰克发现接触电子游戏中的暴力内容与移情能力下降及亲暴力态度之间有相关性[108]。

2003年，威斯敏斯特大学的约翰·科尔韦尔进行另一项研究发现玩带有暴力内容的电子游戏与日本青少年攻击性减少有关[109]。

2005年，美国心理学会发表了一份决议书，认为游戏中的暴力内容会增加敌对性、攻击性想法、促使人们怀疑他人、认同使用暴力解决问题；对暴力性的互动电子游戏研究的综合分析表明，游玩会增加攻击性想法、行为、引发愤怒情绪和其他生理波动，并减少助人行为；媒体中的性暴力与对妇女的暴力行为、强奸谬论的接受度和反妇女态度的增长有相关性。该份决议书呼吁减少媒体（特别是针对儿童的节目和游戏）中的暴力内容，呼吁从社会学习、性别歧视、对少数群体的负面描述以及性别的角度研究电子游戏和其他媒体中的暴力行为对儿童和青少年造成的影响，呼吁让游戏的开发商加入进来一同解决电子游戏中的暴力内容会使儿童和青少年产生攻击性行为和认知的问题。该份决议书还建议娱乐业把暴力行为后果的描述与负面社会后果联系起来，并建立能准确反映电子游戏和互动媒体内容的评级系统。

2005年，布鲁斯·D·巴塞洛等联合了密苏里大学、密歇根大学、阿姆斯特丹自由大学和北卡罗来纳大学四所大学的学者，发现电子游戏中的暴力内容与大脑中脱敏相关的事件相关电位有关联。作者认为，长期接触带有暴力元素的电子游戏会对大脑功能和行为产生长期的有害影响[110]。

2005年，尼古拉斯·L·卡纳吉等人在爱荷华州立大学、密歇根大学和阿姆斯特丹自由大学的一项研究发现，曾玩过带有暴力元素的电子游戏的人在观看真实的暴力视频时，心率和皮肤电刺激反应（英语：Electrodermal activity）都较常人偏低，这表明他们对暴力已经生理脱敏[111]。

2007年斯威本科技大学的一项研究发现孩童对带有暴力元素的电子游戏的反应各不相同，一些孩子变得更加具有攻击性，一些孩子变得更温和，大多数孩子并无行为模式上的明显变化[112]。

2008年，一项追踪研究在日本展开，该研究主要评估儿童玩电子游戏可能产生的长期影响[113]。最终分析的对象是八所公立小学的591名10-11岁的五年级学生，历时一年。该项研究首先要求孩子们完成一项调查，评估孩子们最喜欢的电子游戏中是否存在暴力，以及可能影响结果和孩子们侵略行为的电子游戏环境变量。一年后，该项研究再对孩子们进行调查。结果显示，性别差异非常明显，男孩的攻击行为和愤怒表现明显多于女孩，作者认为这是因为男孩对暴力电子游戏的兴趣要更高。然而，游戏时间与暴力游戏偏好之间的交互作用会减少男孩的侵略性，但对女孩无效。研究人员还发现，有八个环境变量会增加侵略性，包括不合理的暴力、武器的可用性和奖励。此外，角色扮演、暴力程度和幽默这三个环境变量与侵略性降低有关。目前还不清楚从这两项调查中观察到的变化是否真的是情境效应。研究人员发现，电子游戏中暴力的背景和力度对儿童的影响要大于暴力的存在和次数，而且这些影响因儿童而异。

2008年，皮尤互联网与美国生活项目调查统计了电子游戏对青少年社群行为的影响。与没有玩过电子游戏的青少年相比，有玩过多人游戏的青少年的公民意识和政治参与度要高许多。参加游戏相关讨论（如在网站上发表评论或在讨论板上发帖）的青少年会更积极地参与社区和政治活动。在玩游戏的青少年中，63%的人报告说听到或看到过“人们在玩游戏时变得刻薄和过激”，49%的人报告说听到或看到过“人们在玩游戏时变得充满仇恨、种族主义或性别歧视”，78%的人报告说看到过“人们在玩游戏时变得慷慨、乐于帮助他人”[114][115]。

2009年，一份总结针对新加坡、日本和美国不同年龄段学生三项研究的报告中写道，玩亲社会游戏能增加受试者的有益亲社会行为[116]。

2010年，帕特里克·马基和夏洛特·马基在一份论文中认为，暴力电子游戏只会让那些先天具有攻击性倾向（如有神经质、低亲和型或低尽责型）的人产生攻击性情绪[117]。

In 2010, after a review of the effects of violent video games, the Attorney General's Office of Australia reported that even though the Anderson meta-analysis of 2010 was the pinnacle of the scientific debate at that time, significant harm from violent video games had not been persuasively proven or disproven, except that there was some consensus that they might be harmful to people with aggressive or psychotic personality traits.[118]

The attorney general considered a number of issues including:

  • Social and political controversy about the topic.
  • Lack of consensus about definitions and measures of aggression and violent video games (for example, whether a cartoon game has the same impact as a realistic one).
  • Levels of aggression may or may not be an accurate marker for the likelihood of violent behaviour.
  • The playing of violent video games may not be an independent variable in determining violent acts (for example, violent behaviour after playing violent video games may be age dependant, or players of violent video games may watch other violent media).
  • Studies may not have been long or large enough to provide clear conclusions.[118]

2010年，布洛克大学的研究人员保罗·阿达奇和蒂娜·威洛比对争论双方的研究方法都进行了批评，指出实验研究经常将暴力内容与竞争性内容等其他变量混为一谈[119]。在一项后续研究中，作者发现竞争性内容（而非人们之前预想的暴力内容）与攻击性有关[120]。

2011年，密歇根大学发表了一项对14000名大学生进行的长达30年的追踪研究，该研究测量了学生的整体移情水平。该研究发现自20世纪80年代以来，大学生们的移情水平整体下降了40%。作者推测这是多种因素共同作用的结果，包括社会日益强调自私自利、父母教育方式的变化、与电脑打交道的时间变长致使孤独感增加，以及更多地沉浸于各种形式的暴力和自恋性的媒体内容（包括但不限于新闻、电视和电子游戏）。作者没有提供有关媒体影响的数据，但引用了相关研究[121]。

2011年，冯·萨利希在一项针对德国青少年的跟踪研究中发现具有攻击性的青少年倾向于选择更暴力的电子游戏。这项研究没有发现任何证据表明游戏中的暴力内容会导致未成年人的攻击行为。作者推测其他研究可能是受到了“单一回答者偏差”的影响，因为不少研究中的关于青少年攻击性增减的报告来自于青少年们自己的判断，而非家长或是老师的判断[122]。

2012年，瑞典的一项研究考察了《指环王Online：安格玛之影》中玩家的合作行为。作者认为，将游戏中的合作或攻击行为与现实生活中的行为相联系的基础是游戏与现实中的物质条件相差不大，而这一基础显然站不住脚[123]。

2013年，200多名媒体学者联名质疑美国心理学会2005年的决议书忽视了结果不一致的研究，歪曲了科学文献[124][125]，联名者呼吁重新审视相关研究证据，修订之前的决议，并开展更多的研究。联名者包括心理学家杰弗里·阿内特（英语：Jeffrey Arnett）、兰迪·博勒姆（英语：Randy Borum）、大卫·巴斯、大卫·坎特、洛伦萨·科尔扎托（英语：Lorenza Colzato）、M·布伦特·唐纳兰（英语：M. Brent Donnellan）、多萝西·埃斯佩拉奇（英语：Dorothy Espelage）、法兰克·S·法利、克里斯托弗·弗格森（英语：Christopher Ferguson (psychologist)）、彼得·格雷、马克·D·格里菲斯（英语：Mark D. Griffiths）、洁西卡·哈默（英语：Jessica Hammer）、伊藤瑞子（英语：Mizuko Ito）、詹姆斯·C·考夫曼（英语：James C. Kaufman）、丹娜·克里萨宁（英语：Dana Klisanin）、凯瑟琳·麦克布赖德-张（英语：Catherine McBride-Chang）、让·默瑟（英语：Jean Mercer）、哈尔·帕什勒（英语：Hal Pashler）、史蒂芬·平克、理查·M·瑞安（英语：Richard M. Ryan）、托德·肯尼迪·沙克福（英语：Todd K. Shackelford）、丹尼尔·西蒙斯（英语：Daniel Simons）、伊恩·斯彭斯（英语：Ian Spence (psychologist)）和迪恩·西蒙顿（英语：Dean Simonton），犯罪学家凯文·比弗（英语：Kevin Beaver）、詹姆斯·艾伦·福克斯（英语：James Alan Fox）、罗杰·J·R·莱维斯克（英语：Roger J.R. Levesque）和迈克·A·马尔斯（英语：Mike A. Males），游戏设计研究者鲍勃·德舒特（英语：Bob De Schutter）、库尔特·斯奎尔（英语：Kurt Squire），通讯学者托尔斯滕·夸特（英语：Thorsten Quandt）及科普作家理查·罗兹[126][127]。

2013年摩根·特尔和马克·尼尔森的一项研究无法复现此前亲社会行为增减的研究[98]。

2013年荷兰拉德堡德大学的伊莎贝拉·格拉尼奇等人认为，即便是带有暴力内容的电子游戏也能促进人们提升学习、健康和社交技能，用于治疗心理健康问题的游戏还不够多。伊莎贝拉·格拉尼奇还认为双方的观点都有一定道理，所以有必要从更平衡的角度和更复杂的情况出发进行分析[128]。

In 2014, Ferguson and Olson found no correlation between video game violence and bullying or delinquency in children with preexisting attention deficit disorder or depressive symptoms.[129]

In 2014, Villanova professor Patrick M. Markey conducted a study with 118 teenagers suggesting that video games have no influence on increased aggression of users; however, he did find that when used for the right amount of time (roughly 1 hour) video games can make children nicer and more socially interactive. This information was provided by the teens teachers at their local schools.[130][来源可靠？]

2014年，牛津大学的安德鲁·普日比尔斯基研究了暴力内容和挫折感对电子游戏玩家敌意的影响。普日比尔斯基等人发现挫败感（而非暴力内容）会增加玩家的敌意。此外，普日比尔斯基等人还发现此前的一些“经典研究”的结果难以复现[131]。

2014年的一项跟踪研究发现玩含暴力内容的电子游戏会使得人们在很小的幅度上更倾向于做出冒险的行为[132]。

In 2015, the American Psychological Association released a review that found that violent video games caused aggressive behavior, with Mark Appelbaum, the chair of the task force that conducted the review, saying that "the link between violence in video games and increased aggression in players is one of the most studied and best established in the field." However, Appelbaum also characterized the size of the correlation as "not very big". The same review found insufficient evidence of a link between such video games and crime or delinquency. Critics, including Peter Gray and Christopher Ferguson, expressed concerns about methodological limitations of the review. Ferguson stated that "I think (the task force members) were selected because their opinions were pretty clear going in." At least four of the seven task force members had previously expressed opinions on the topic; critics argued this alone constitutes a conflict of interest, while a task force member defended that "If it were common practice to exclude all scientists after they render one conclusion, the field would be void of qualified experts".[133][134]

2015年的一项研究考察了带有暴力元素的电子游戏对患有自闭症的青年玩家的影响。研究发现，找不到证据表明玩这类游戏会影响自闭症玩家的攻击性。这一结果与2012年桑迪胡克枪击案后的担忧相矛盾，当时人们认为带有暴力元素的电子游戏对自闭症患者和其他精神病患者有更大的影响[135]。

2016年的一项研究表明，“性别歧视”类的游戏（作者以侠盗猎车手系列游戏为例）可能会降低对女性的共情能力。虽然作者没有发现任何证据表明游戏会直接造成影响，但作者认为，游戏设定的条件、游戏中的男性角色规范、性别和游戏角色认同之间的交互作用产生了足够的证据，因此可以认为二者之间有关系。其他学者对这项研究表达了对研究方法的一些担忧，比如游戏条件的随机化可能不足以支撑结论（见评论部分）[136]。

In 2016, a preregistered study of violent video game effects concluded that violent video games did not influence aggression in players.[90] The preregistered nature of the study removed the potential for the scholars to "nudge" the results of the study in favor of the hypothesis and suggests that preregistration of future studies may help clarify results in the field.

元分析

编辑

由于不同研究往往会得出南辕北辙的结论，故学术争论往往会转向元分析——一种整合各项研究，解释不同研究结果之间差异的分析方法。

目前学界已进行了多项元分析的研究，但仍会得到不同的结论。一项2001年的元分析回顾了电子游戏中的暴力内容与3033名青少年攻击行为之间的关系，发现两者之间存在显著的正相关关系，得出结论电子游戏中的暴力内容确实会导致青少年攻击行为的增加[4]。同年，约翰·谢里进行的另一项元分析研究对电子游戏中暴力内容的效果持怀疑态度，谢里特别研究了电子游戏中的互动，认为电子游戏不会因此产生更大的影响[5]。谢里后来在2007年发表了另一份元分析研究，再次得到认为电子游戏中的暴力内容对攻击行为的影响微乎其微的结论。谢里还引用他观察到的剂量-反应曲线进行了反驳，他报告说人们会期望青少年接触电子游戏时间越长越有攻击性，然而剂量-反应曲线表明接触电子游戏时间越长攻击性反而越低[137]。

2010年，安德森等人发布了一项元分析研究报告，该报告分析了130项国际研究，总计被分析人数超过13万人。他们报告说，接触暴力的电子游戏会导致玩家产生短期性和长期性的攻击行为，还会减少同情心和亲社会行为[138]。然而，其他学者批评这项元分析排除了一些研究，并存在一些方法上的缺陷[139][140][141]。安德森等人为他们进行的元分析进行了辩护，反驳了这些批评[142]。密歇根大学心理学和社会学学者罗威尔·胡斯曼（英语：Rowell Huesmann）后来撰写了一篇社论，支持安德森等人的结果[143]。后来的另一份对安德森等人报告的再分析说，被分析的研究中的发表偏差比安德森等人以为的要更大，这意味着实际结果可能比安德森等人得到的结果要小，甚至可能没有统计学上的意义[144]。安德森等人表示他们知道这些实验中存在发表偏差，但仍认为得到的结论可靠[145]。

A 2015 meta-analysis of video game effects suggested that video games, including violent games, had minimal impact on children's behavior including violence, prosocial behavior and mental health.[146] The journal included a debate section on this meta-analysis including scholars who were both supportive[147] and critical[148][149] of this meta-analysis. The original author also responded to these comments, arguing that few coherent methodological critiques had been raised.[150] In 2016, Kanamori and Doi replicated the original Angry Birds meta-analysis and concluded that critiques of the original meta were largely unwarranted.[151]

2018年的一项关于暴力电子游戏与攻击性行为之间的长期关系的元分析发现“暴力电子游戏与攻击行为、攻击性认知和攻击性情感呈正相关，而与对暴力受害者的同情和亲社会行为呈负相关”[152]。

A 2020 meta-analysis of long-term outcome studies concluded that evidence did not support links between earlier playing of violent games and later aggression. The authors found an overall correlation of r = 0.059, and stated that better quality studies were less likely to find evidence for effects than poorer quality studies.[153][154]

使用功能性磁共振成像进行的研究

编辑

电子游戏对大脑的长期影响程度也存在一定争议，学者们就此使用功能性磁共振成像进行了一些研究。一些研究表明，电子游戏玩家的杏仁核功能增强，而额叶功能减弱[155]。一些学者由此认为电子游戏对额叶的影响可能类似于侵扰行为障碍症（英语：disruptive behavior disorders）中出现的失活现象[156][157]。此外，这方面的一些研究被指存在利益冲突。布朗诉娱乐商业协会案中的一些人指出克罗嫩伯格所做的研究是由“成功父母中心”公开资助的，故可能意味着存在利益冲突[158]。

后来的其他研究无法找到含暴力元素的游戏与大脑功能减退之间存在联系的证据。例如，里根柏格等人进行的一项功能性磁共振成像研究发现，含暴力内容的电子游戏与区分真实和虚拟暴力的能力下降之间没有联系[159]。另一项2016年使用功能性磁共振成像进行的研究没有发现证据表明暴力电子游戏会导致玩家产生脱敏效应[160]。西蒙娜·库恩博士在接受BBC采访时解释说，先前的功能性磁共振成像研究中看到的大脑效应很可能表明，玩家只是能够区分现实和虚构，并相应地调节自己的情绪反应，而不是会发生心理上的脱敏[161]。

对犯罪影响的研究

编辑

In 2008, records held by the US Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and Office of Justice Programs indicated that arrests for violent crime in the US had decreased since the early 1990s in both children and adults.[162][163][164] This decrease occurred contemporaneously with increasing sales of violent video games and increases in graphically violent content in those games.[165][166]

Studies of violent video game playing and crime have generally not supported the existence of causal links. Evidence from studies of juveniles[167][168][169] as well as criminal offenders[170] has generally not uncovered evidence for links. Some studies have suggested that violent video game playing may be associated with reductions in some types of aggression, such as bullying.[171]

Studies of mass shootings have, likewise, provided no evidence for links with violent video games. A 2002 report from the US Secret Service found that school shooters appeared to consume relatively low levels of violent media.[172] Some criminologists have referred to claims linking violent video games to mass shootings as a "myth".[173]

Some studies have examined the consumption of violent video games in society and violent crime rates. Generally, it is acknowledged that societal violent video game consumption has been associated with over an 80% reduction in youth violence in the US during the corresponding period.[174] However, scholars note that, while this data is problematic for arguments that violent video games increase crime, such data is correlational and cannot be used to conclude video games have caused this decline in crime.[175]

Other studies have examined data on violent video games and crime trends more closely and have come to the conclusion that the release of very popular violent video games are causally associated with corresponding declines in violent crime in the short term. A 2011 study by the Center for European Economic Research[176] found that violent video games may be reducing crime. This is possibly because the time spent playing games reduces time spent engaged in more antisocial activities. Other recent studies by Patrick Markey[177] and Scott Cunningham[178] have come to similar conclusions.

美国的公众辩论

编辑
 
Jack Thompson, an activist, filed lawsuits against the makers of violent games, alleging that simulated violence causes real-world violence.

In the early 1980s, Ronnie Lamm, the president of the Long Island PTA sought legislation to govern the proximity of video game arcades to schools.[179] In the 1990s, Joe Lieberman, a US Senator, chaired a hearing about violent video games such as Mortal Kombat.[180] David Grossman, a former West Point psychology lecturer and lieutenant colonel, wrote books about violence in the media including: On Killing (1996) and Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill (1999).[181] He described first-person shooter games as murder simulators, and argued that video game publishers unethically train children in the use of weapons and harden them emotionally towards commitments of murder by simulating the killing of hundreds or thousands of opponents in a single typical video game.[182]

In 2003, Craig A. Anderson, a researcher who testified on the topic before the U.S. Senate, said,

"[S]ome studies have yielded nonsignificant video game effects, just as some smoking studies failed to find a significant link to lung cancer. But when one combines all relevant empirical studies using meta-analytic techniques, it shows that violent video games are significantly associated with: increased aggressive behavior, thoughts, and affect; increased physiological arousal; and decreased pro-social (helping) behavior."[183][184][185][186]

In 2005, Anderson was criticized in court for failing to give balanced expert evidence.[187]

In 2008, in Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth About Violent Video Games and What Parents Can Do, Kutner and Olsen refuted claims that violent video games cause an increase in violent behavior in children. They report there is a scientifically non-significant trend showing that adolescents who do not play video games at all are most at risk for violent behavior and video game play is part of an adolescent boy's normal social setting. However, the authors did not completely deny the negative influences of violent (M-rated) video games on pre-teens and teenagers: Kutner and Olson suggested the views of alarmists and those of representatives of the video game industry are often supported by flawed or misconstrued studies and that the factors leading to violence in children and adolescents were more subtle than whether or not they played violent video games.[188][189]

Henry Jenkins, an academic in media studies, said,

"According to federal crime statistics, the rate of juvenile violent crime in the United States is at a 30-year low. Researchers find that people serving time for violent crimes typically consume less media before committing their crimes than the average person in the general population. It's true that young offenders who have committed school shootings in America have also been game players. But young people in general are more likely to be gamers—90 percent of boys and 40 percent of girls play. The overwhelming majority of kids who play do not commit antisocial acts. According to a 2001 U.S. Surgeon General's report, the strongest risk factors for school shootings centered on mental stability and the quality of home life, not media exposure. The moral panic over violent video games is doubly harmful. It has led adult authorities to be more suspicious and hostile to many kids who already feel cut off from the system. It also misdirects energy away from eliminating the actual causes of youth violence and allows problems to continue to fester."[190]

In 2013, Corey Mead, a professor of English at Baruch College, wrote about how the U.S. military financed the original development of video games, and has long used them for both training, recruitment purposes, and treatment of post traumatic stress disorder. He also argues that the two industries are currently intertwined into each other in a "military-entertainment complex".[191] Writing in 2013, scholars James Ivory and Malte Elson noted that, although research on video game effects remained inconclusive, the culture of the academic field itself had become very contentious and that politicians had put pressure on scientists to produce specific research findings. The authors concluded it is improper for scholars or legislators to, at present, portray video games as a public health crisis.[127] Research by Oxford psychologist Andrew Przybylski has shown that Americans are split in opinion on how video game violence links to gun violence. Przybylski found that older people, women rather than men, people who knew less about games and who were very conservative in ideology were most likely to think video games could cause gun violence.[192]

Several groups address video game violence as a topic that they focus on. Groups such as Parents Against Violence, Parents Against Media Violence and One Million Moms take stances aimed at limiting the violence in video games and other media.[193][194][195]

Video games, particularly violent ones, are often mentioned as a cause for major gun crimes in the wake of school shooting by young adults. For example, Adam Lanza, the 20-year-old shooter at the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, was found to have numerous video games in his possession, leading for some people to blame video games for the shooting;[196] however, the State Attorney did not link video game to the event in their final report of the incident, though identified that video game addiction may have been connected.[197][198] In February 2018, following the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida, President Donald Trump, among others, said "the level of violence on video games is really shaping young people's thoughts".[199] Rhode Island state representative Robert Nardolillo also proposed legislation to tax violent video games (those rated "Mature" or higher by the ESRB) to use funds for supporting mental health programs in the state.[200]

Following the Stoneman Douglas shooting event, President Trump arranged to meet with several video game industry professionals on March 8, 2018; in attendance beyond Trump and other Congressmen included Mike Gallagher, the president and CEO of the ESA; Pat Vance, the president of the ESRB; Strauss Zelnick, CEO of Take Two Interactive, Robert Altman, CEO of ZeniMax Media; Brent Bozell, founder of the Media Research Center; and Melissa Hanson, program manager for the Parents Television Council. The meeting was not designed to come to a solution but only for the invited parties to present their stance on video games and their relationship to violent activity as to try to determine appropriate steps in the future.[201] At the start of the meeting, the President showed the attendees a short 88-second video of numerous violent video game segments put together by his staff, including the infamous "No Russian" level from Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, which featured the player watching and potentially participating in a massacre of civilians in an airport.[202]

The White House later released the video to YouTube, where it quickly became popular due to the controversy over the relationship between video games and real-life violence; despite being unlisted shortly after being uploaded, it has reached about 1.6 million views as of 2023.[203][204] The video is still accessible via URL, and media outlets like IGN included links to the original in their responses to the matter.[205] Games for Change made a short response video with 550.000 views titled "#GameOn".[206]

国家因素

编辑

澳大利亚

编辑

Video games are rated in Australia by the Australian Classification Board (ACB), run out of the federal Attorney-General's Department. ACB also oversees ratings on films and applies the same ratings system as to video games. Broadly, the ratings system is based on a number of factors including violence. The ACB can refuse to classify a film or game if they felt the content was beyond allowable guidelines for the strictest ratings. Titles refused classification by ACB are thus illegal to sell within Australia and assess fines for those that attempted to import such games, while allowing titles with more mature ratings to be sold under regulated practices. Prior to 2011, video games could only qualify up to a "MA15+" rating, and not the next highest tier of "R18+" which were allowed for film. Several high-profile games thus were banned in Australia. The ACB agreed to allow video games to have R18+ ratings in 2011, and some of these games that were previously banned were subsequently allowed under R18+.

参考文献

编辑
  1. ^ APA RESOLUTION on Violent Video Games [美国心理学会关于暴力电子游戏的决议] (PDF). www.apa.org. [2022-11-05]. 
  2. ^ APA TASK FORCE REPORT on Violent Video Games [美国心理学会暴力视频游戏工作组报告] (PDF). www.apa.org. [2022-11-05]. 
  3. ^ Markey, Patrick; Ferguson, Christopher. 2. Moral Combat: Why the War on Violent Video Games Is Wrong. BenBella Books, Inc. 2017. ISBN 978-1942952992. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Anderson, Craig A.; Bushman, Brad J. Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature.. Psychological Science. 2001, 12 (5): 353–359. PMID 11554666. S2CID 14987425. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00366. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Sherry, John. The effects of violent video games on aggression: a meta-analysis. Human Communication Research. 2001, 27 (3): 409–431. S2CID 6322160. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2001.tb00787.x. 
  6. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J.; Kilburn, J. The public health risks of media violence: a meta-analytic review. The Journal of Pediatrics. 2009, 154 (5): 759–763. PMID 19230901. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.11.033. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Anderson CA, Gentile DA, Buckley KE. Violent Video Game Effects on Children and Adolescents. Theory, Research, and Public Policy. New York: Oxford University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-530983-6. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195309836.001.0001. 
  8. ^ Cumberbatch, Guy. Video violence: villain or victim? (paper). London: Video Standards Council. 2004. 
  9. ^ Sternheimer, Karen. It's not the media: the truth about pop culture's influence on children . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0813341385. 
  10. ^ Benedetti, Winda. Why search our souls when video games make such an easy scapegoat?. NBC News. 18 February 2008 [17 August 2008]. 
  11. ^ Radoff, Jon. Six wonderful things about video games. Radoff.com. 8 December 2009 [8 March 2014]. （原始内容存档于13 December 2009）. 
  12. ^ Ferguson, C. J.; Garza, A. Call of (civic) duty: Action games and civic behavior in a large sample of youth. Computers in Human Behavior. 2011, 27 (2): 770–775. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.10.026. 
  13. ^ Newzoo PC & Console Gaming Report 2023, pp. 37. Results from: Newzoo Global Gamer Study 2022 (Global weighted average across 36 markets; n=60,020).
  14. ^ Martha Irvine. Survey: 97 Percent Of Children Play Video Games. Huffingtonpost.com. 2008-10-17 [2015-02-18]. （原始内容存档于2010-01-07）. 
  15. ^ Abad-Santos, Alex. The insane history of how American paranoia ruined and censored comic books. Vox. March 13, 2015 [August 25, 2019]. 
  16. ^ Burrus, Trevor. These Kids Today: The Long History of Complaining About Violent Entertainment. Cato Institute. March 9, 2018 [August 25, 2019]. 
  17. ^ Good, Owen. Comic Books' Disastrous Self-Censorship Offers a Lesson for Games Publishers, Too. Kotaku. January 11, 2013 [August 25, 2019]. 
  18. ^ June, Laura. For Amusement Only: the life and death of the American arcade. The Verge. January 1, 2013 [August 11, 2020]. 
  19. ^ Smith, Ryan. Chicago once waged a 40-year war on pinball. Chicago Reader. May 5, 2018 [August 11, 2020]. 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 Kocurek, Carly. The Agony and the Exidy: A History of Video Game Violence and the Legacy of Death Race. Game Studies. September 2012, 12 (1) [August 11, 2020]. 
  21. ^ Walker, Wendy. It Offers That Run-Down Feeling. Associated Press. 1976-07-02. 
  22. ^ Blumenthal, Ralph. Death Race. The New York Times. December 28, 1976 [August 22, 2019]. 
  23. ^ AROUND THE NATION; Surgeon General Sees Danger in Video Games [全国各地；外科医生认为电子游戏存在危险]. The New York Times. Associated Press. 1982-11-10 [August 22, 2019]. 
  24. ^ Mandel, Howard. The Great Debate. VideoGames & Computer Entertainment. Vol. 72. 1983-03: 21–24. 
  25. ^ Fahs, Travis. The History of Mortal Kombat. Follow its bloody legacy from 1992 to the present day.. IGN. May 5, 2011 [August 22, 2019]. 
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Crossley, Rob. Mortal Kombat: Violent game that changed video games industry. BBC. June 2, 2014 [October 30, 2018]. （原始内容存档于August 1, 2018）. 
  27. ^ Scolars, Mike. Nintendo vs. Sega: The battle over being cool. Polygon. August 22, 2017 [October 31, 2018]. 
  28. ^ Redburn, Tom. Toys 'R' Us Stops Selling a Violent Video Game. The New York Times. December 17, 1993 [October 31, 2018]. 
  29. ^ Cohen, Karen. Video game makers say they are making progress on ratings. UPI. March 3, 1994 [November 2, 2018]. 
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 Kohler, Chris. July 29, 1994: Videogame Makers Propose Ratings Board to Congress. Wired (Condé Nast Publications). July 29, 2009 [June 1, 2011]. （原始内容存档于2014-02-18）. 
  31. ^ Buckley, Sean. Then there were three: Sony, Microsoft, Nintendo and the evolution of the Electronic Entertainment Expo. Engadget. June 6, 2013 [May 9, 2017]. 
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Bella, Timothy. Politicians suggest video games are to blame for the El Paso shooting. It's an old claim that's not backed by research.. The Washington Post. August 5, 2019 [August 22, 2019]. 
  33. ^ Vossekuil, Bryan; Fein, Robert; Reddy, Marisa; Borum, Randy; Modzeleski, William. The Final Report and Findings of the Safe School Initiative: Implications for the Prevention of School Attacks in the United States (PDF). United States Department of Education. July 2004-07 [2019-08-22]. 
  34. ^ Kent S. "The Mainstream and All Its Perils" The ultimate history of video games:... Three Rivers Press, New York 2001 p544–545. ISBN 0761536434
  35. ^ Barr S. and Grapes B. "Violent children." Greenhaven Press, San Diego 2000 p26 ISBN 0737701595 (originally printed as "Computer Violence: Are Your Kids At Risk?" Reader's Digest January 1999.)
  36. ^ Radwick, Dora; Dolan, Sean P. NPD Reports Annual 2001 U.S. Interactive Entertainment Sales Shatter Industry Record (新闻稿). Port Washington, New York: NPD Group. February 7, 2002 [April 9, 2016]. （原始内容存档于August 14, 2004）. 
  37. ^ Good, Owen. Grand Theft Auto III: The Birth Of A Media Scapegoat. Kotaku. Gawker Media. October 23, 2011 [December 21, 2015]. （原始内容存档于April 22, 2016）. 
  38. ^ Richtel, Matt. BACKSLASH; Mayhem, and Far From the Nicest Kind. The New York Times. February 10, 2002 [December 21, 2015]. （原始内容存档于April 21, 2016）. 
  39. ^ Cohen, Adam. “California's Misguided War on Violent Video Games.” Time, Time Inc., 27 October 2010, content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2027692,00.html.
  40. ^ Benson, Julian. The Rise and Fall of Video Gaming's Most Vocal Enemy. Kotaku. September 15, 2015 [August 22, 2019]. 
  41. ^ Verwirrung um Therapie von Tim K. – Eltern des Amokschützen dementieren Behandlung – Schütze spielte vor der Tat Killerspiel. news-times.de. 2009-03-11 [2009-03-19] （德语）. 
  42. ^ Polizei hat Hinweise auf Tatmotiv. Der Spiegel. 12 March 2009 [12 March 2009] （德语）. 
  43. ^ CSU will Killerspiel-Verbot, SPD Kontrolle über Schützenvereine. Der Spiegel. 13 March 2009 [13 March 2009] （德语）. 
  44. ^ Opferfamilien fordern Killerspiel-Verbot. sueddeutsche.de. 21 March 2009 [21 March 2009] （德语）. 
  45. ^ Winnenden: Eine Tat, aus der man nicht klug werden kann. http://www.welt.de. 2009-03-21 [2009-03-24] （德语）. 
  46. ^ Thorsen, Tor. Modern Warfare 2 massacre 'not representative of overall experience' - Activision. GameSpot. October 29, 2009 [October 8, 2018]. （原始内容存档于2018-08-20）. 
  47. ^ Stuart, Keith. Should Modern Warfare 2 allow us to play at terrorism?. The Guardian. October 29, 2009 [August 1, 2016]. （原始内容存档于2016-08-26）. 
  48. ^ Orry, James. BBC reporter 'saddened' but not 'shocked' by MW2. VideoGamer.com. Candy Banana. November 10, 2009 [August 1, 2016]. （原始内容存档于2016-08-17）. 
  49. ^ Parker, Laura. Is It Time for Games to Get Serious?. GameSpot. CBS Interactive. June 26, 2012 [August 1, 2016]. （原始内容存档于2016-02-22）. 
  50. ^ Hester, Blake. "Remember, No Russian:" Critics and Developers Remember Call of Duty's Most Infamous Mission. USGamer. October 28, 2019 [October 28, 2019]. 
  51. ^ Judge rules Michigan video game law is unconstitutional. USA Today. April 4, 2006 [November 1, 2010]. 
  52. ^ Broache, Anne. Court rejects Illinois video game law. CNet. November 26, 2006 [November 1, 2010]. （原始内容存档于January 20, 2013）. 
  53. ^ Kravits, David. States May Not Ban Sale, Rental of Violent Videogames to Minors. Wired. June 27, 2011 [June 27, 2011]. （原始内容存档于2011-06-29）. 
  54. ^ Kendall, Brent. Court Voices Doubts on Violent Videogame Law. Wall Street Journal. November 2, 2010 [November 2, 2010]. （原始内容存档于2015-07-24）. 
  55. ^ Saiken (编). 时隔一年躺枪 美国枪击案凶手爱玩射击游戏. 新浪游戏. 2013-11-27 [2024-06-26]. 
  56. ^ Jaslow, Ryan. Violent video games and mass violence: A complex link [暴力电子游戏与大规模暴力：复杂的联系]. CBS News. 2013-02-18 [2019-08-22]. 
  57. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Video games didn't cause Newtown rampage [电子游戏并非纽敦镇大屠杀的罪魁祸首]. CNN. 2013-02-20 [2013-11-11]. 
  58. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Sandy Hook Shooting: Video Games Blamed, Again. Time. December 20, 2012 [November 11, 2013]. 
  59. ^ Robertson, Adi. Joe Biden meets with gaming industry over gun violence, but promises he's not singling it out. The Verge. January 12, 2013 [April 30, 2020]. 
  60. ^ Beekman, Daniel. NRA blames video games like 'Kindergarten Killer' for Sandy Hook slaughter. Daily News (New York). December 21, 2012 [November 11, 2013]. 
  61. ^ Winda Benedetti. NRA: Video game industry 'sows violence against its own people'. NBC News. NBCUniversal News Group. 21 December 2012 [4 May 2023]. （原始内容存档于22 June 2022） （English）. 
  62. ^ Kreienbrink, Matthias. Killerspiele: Schon wieder die K-Frage. Die Zeit. 2016-07-26 [2020-01-21]. ISSN 0044-2070 （de-DE）. 
  63. ^ Brühl, Jannis. Amoklauf: De Maizière und die Killerspiel-Debatte. Süddeutsche.de. July 23, 2016 [2020-01-21] （德语）. 
  64. ^ Wartman, Scott. School shootings: Kentucky Gov. Matt Bevin blames violent video games and shows, not guns. The Cincinnati Enquirer. [April 17, 2018]. 
  65. ^ Fogel, Stefanie. Kentucky Governor Blames Video Games for Florida School Shooting. Rolling Stone. [April 17, 2018]. （原始内容存档于April 17, 2018）.  参数|magazine=与模板{{cite news}}不匹配（建议改用{{cite magazine}}或|newspaper=） (帮助)
  66. ^ Snider, Mike. These are the video games the White House played in its meeting on game violence. USA Today. March 8, 2018 [August 22, 2019]. 
  67. ^ Bittar, Bernardo. Mourão sobre Suzano: 'Jovens estão muito viciados em videogames violentos'. Correio Braziliense. 2019-03-13 [2020-01-21] （巴西葡萄牙语）. 
  68. ^ Do violent videogames influence young people? What researches show | Texto em inglês com áudio. Wise Up News: textos em inglês com áudio da Gazeta do Povo. 2019-03-19 [2020-01-21] （美国英语）. 
  69. ^ 69.0 69.1 69.2 Draper, Kevin. Video Games Aren't Why Shootings Happen. Politicians Still Blame Them.. The New York Times. August 5, 2019 [August 22, 2019]. 
  70. ^ Haselton, Todd; Graham, Megan. About 2,200 people watched the German synagogue shooting on Amazon's Twitch. CNBC. 2019-10-09 [2020-01-21] （英语）. 
  71. ^ Hurtz, Simon; dpa. Anschlag in Halle: Horst Seehofer reanimiert die Killerspieldebatte. Die Zeit. 2019-10-13 [2020-01-21]. ISSN 0044-2070 （de-DE）. 
  72. ^ Die Neunziger wollen ihre Killerspiel-Debatte zurück. Der Tagesspiegel Online. October 14, 2019 [2020-01-21] （德语）. 
  73. ^ Gobernador de Coahuila culpa a los videojuegos por el tiroteo de Torreón am.com.mx, Jan 10, 2020 Natural Selection, el videojuego que jugaba autor de tiroteo en Torreón Milenio Digital, Jan 10, 2020
  74. ^ Aclara experto de la UNAM que videojuegos no provocan tiroteos PalcoNoticias, Jan 11, 2020
  75. ^ Los videojuegos no tienen la culpa; los padres sí: Especialista By Amelia Obregón, El Imparcial (Mexico), Jan 10, 2020
  76. ^ 胡雪 (编). 馬克龍：「我讓遊戲玩家嚇了一跳」. 新浪香港. 2023-09-18 [2024-06-27]. 
  77. ^ 77.0 77.1 Technical Report on the Review of The Violent Video Game Literature (PDF). American Psychological Association. 2015 [April 12, 2021]. 
  78. ^ Chris Ferguson; Dana Klisinan; Jerri Lynn Hogg; June Wilson; Patrick Markey; Andy Przybylski; Malte Elson; Jimmy Ivory; Deborah Linebarger; Mary Gregerson; Frank Farley; Shahbaz Siddiqui. News Media, Public Education and Public Policy Committee. The Amplifier Magazine (American Psychological Association). June 12, 2017 [August 22, 2019]. 
  79. ^ APA Reaffirms Position on Violent Video Games and Violent Behavior. American Psychological Association. March 3, 2020 [March 4, 2020]. 
  80. ^ Bogost, Ian. Video-Game Violence Is Now a Partisan Issue. The Atlantic. August 5, 2019 [August 22, 2019]. 
  81. ^ Ferguson, Christopher; Wang, JCK. Aggressive Video Games are Not a Risk Factor for Future Aggression in Youth: A Longitudinal Study.. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. August 2019, 48 (8): 1439–1451. PMID 31273603. S2CID 195807704. doi:10.1007/s10964-019-01069-0. 
  82. ^ Smith, S; Ferguson, C; Beaver, K. A longitudinal analysis of shooter games and their relationship with conduct disorder and cself-reported delinquency.. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. May 2018, 58: 48–53. PMID 29853012. S2CID 46919245. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2018.02.008. 
  83. ^ Kühn, Simone; Kugler, Dimitrij Tycho; Schmalen, Katharina; Weichenberger, Markus; Witt, Charlotte; Gallinat, Jürgen. Does playing violent video games cause aggression? A longitudinal intervention study. Molecular Psychiatry. August 2019, 24 (8): 1220–1234. ISSN 1476-5578. PMC 6756088  . PMID 29535447. doi:10.1038/s41380-018-0031-7 （英语）. 
  84. ^ Dolan, Eric W. Brain imaging study challenges long-held beliefs about negative effects of violent video games. PsyPost. 2023-12-03 [2024-01-22] （美国英语）. 
  85. ^ DeWall, Anderson & Bushman. The General Aggression Model: Theoretical Extensions to Violence (PDF). Psychology of Violence. 2011, 1 (3): 245–258 [2017-01-03]. doi:10.1037/a0023842. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2017-08-12）. 
  86. ^ Kooijmans T. "Effects of video games on aggressive thoughts and behaviors during development."Rochester Institute of Technology December 2004.
  87. ^ Ferguson & Dyck. Paradigm change in aggression research: The time has come to retire the General Aggression Model (PDF). Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2012, 17 (3): 220–228. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.02.007. 
  88. ^ Ballard, Mary; Visser, Kara; Jocoy, Kathleen. Social Context and Video Game Play: Impact on Cardiovascular and Affective Responses. Mass Communication and Society. 2012-11-19, 15 (6): 875–898. ISSN 1532-7825. S2CID 144482524. doi:10.1080/15205436.2011.632106. 
  89. ^ Sauer, James D.; Drummond, Aaron; Nova, Natalie. Violent video games: The effects of narrative context and reward structure on in-game and postgame aggression. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. 2015-09-01, 21 (3): 205–214. ISSN 1939-2192. PMID 26121373. S2CID 40548080. doi:10.1037/xap0000050. 
  90. ^ 90.0 90.1 McCarthy, Randy J.; Coley, Sarah L.; Wagner, Michael F.; Zengel, Bettina; Basham, Ariel. Does playing video games with violent content temporarily increase aggressive inclinations? A pre-registered experimental study. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. Special Issue: Confirmatory. 2016-11-01, 67: 13–19. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.009. 
  91. ^ Ferguson C. et al. "Violent video games and aggression: Causal relationship or byproduct of family violence and intrinsic violence motivation?" Criminal Justice and Behavior 2008 35 p311–332.
  92. ^ Ferguson, C.; Beaver, K. Natural born killers: the genetic origins of extreme violence, aggression and violent behavior. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2009, 14 (5): 286–294. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.03.005. 
  93. ^ Schulzke M. "Moral decision making in fallout." Game Studies 2009 9(2). Accessed 29 November 2013.
  94. ^ Gentile D. et al. "The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: international evidence from correlational, longitudinal and experimental studies." National Institute of Health. Accessed 24 April 2013.
  95. ^ 认为玩带有暴力元素的电子游戏会增加青少年的攻击性的研究：
  96. ^ Rothmund, Tobias; Bender, Jens; Nauroth, Peter; Gollwitzer, Mario. Public concerns about violent video games are moral concerns—How moral threat can make pacifists susceptible to scientific and political claims against violent video games. European Journal of Social Psychology. 2015, 45 (6): 769–783. ISSN 1099-0992. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2125 （英语）. 
  97. ^ 认为二者之间没有任何关联的研究：
  98. ^ 98.0 98.1 Tear, Morgan J.; Nielsen, Mark. Failure to Demonstrate That Playing Violent Video Games Diminishes Prosocial Behavior. PLOS ONE. 2013, 8 (7): e68382. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...868382T. PMC 3700923  . PMID 23844191. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068382  . 
  99. ^ Bushman, Brad; Gollwitzer, Mario; Cruz, Carlos. There is broad consensus: Media researchers agree that violent media increase aggression in children, and pediatricians and parents concur.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2014. 
  100. ^ Etchells, Pete; Chambers, Chris. Violent video games research: consensus or confusion?. The Guardian. 2014-10-10 [2017-01-03]. ISSN 0261-3077 （英国英语）. 
  101. ^ Kirsh, Steven. Seeing the world through Mortal Kombat-colored glasses: Violent video games and the development of a short-term Hostile Attribution Bias [戴着“真人快打”的有色眼镜看世界：暴力电子游戏与短期敌对归因偏差的形成]. Childhood. 1998, 5 (2): 177–184. S2CID 143735522. doi:10.1177/0907568298005002005. 
  102. ^ Anderson, Craig A.; Karen E., Dill. Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. [电子游戏与实验室和生活中的攻击性思想、情感和行为。]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. April 2000, 78 (4): 772–790. PMID 10794380. S2CID 9606759. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.772. 
  103. ^ Ferguson; et al. VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES AND AGGRESSION Causal Relationship or Byproduct of Family Violence and Intrinsic Violence Motivation? [暴力电子游戏与自闭症，家庭暴力与内在暴力动机的因果关系还是副产品？] (PDF). Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2008, 35 (3): 311–332. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.494.950  . S2CID 7145392. doi:10.1177/0093854807311719. 
  104. ^ Wright B. "Sounding the alarm on video game ratings." CNN website 18 February 2004. Accessed 10 December 2004.
  105. ^ Vosekuill B. "Safe school initiative final report." U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education May 2002 p26.
  106. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. The school shooting/violent video game link: causal relationship or moral panic?. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling. 2008-01-01, 5 (1–2): 25–37. ISSN 1544-4767. S2CID 62812428. doi:10.1002/jip.76 （英语）. 
  107. ^ Funk, J.B.; Buchman, D.D.; Jenks, J.; Bechtoldt, H. Playing violent video games, desensitization, and moral evaluation in children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 2003, 24 (4): 413–416. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(03)00073-X. 
  108. ^ Funk J. B.; et al. Violence exposure in real-life, video games, television, movies, and the internet: Is there desensitization? (PDF). Journal of Adolescence. 2004, 27 (27): 23–39 [23 April 2015]. PMID 15013258. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.005. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于27 March 2014）. 
  109. ^ Colwell, John; Kato, Makiko. Investigation of the relationship between social isolation, self-esteem, aggression and computer game play in Japanese adolescents. Asian Journal of Social Psychology. 2003-08-01, 6 (2): 149–158. ISSN 1467-839X. S2CID 144813700. doi:10.1111/1467-839X.t01-1-00017 （英语）. 
  110. ^ B.D. Bartholow, et al. Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data
  111. ^ Nicholas L. Carnagey, et al. The effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence 互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2013-05-16.
  112. ^ Arendt, Susan. Study: Kids Unaffected by Violent Games. Wired. 2007-04-02. [2024-06-27]. 
  113. ^ Shibuya, A.; Sakamoto, A.; Ihori, N.; Yukawa, S. The effects of the presence and contexts of video game violence in children: A longitudinal study in Japan. Simulation & Gaming. 2008, 39 (4): 528–539. S2CID 145062731. doi:10.1177/1046878107306670. 
  114. ^ Teens, Video Games and Civics. Pew Research Center's Internet & American Life Project. 16 September 2008 [17 February 2015]. 
  115. ^ Christopher J. Ferguson; Adolfo Garza. Call of (civic) duty: Action games and civic behavior in a large sample of youth (PDF). Computers in Human Behavior. March 2011, 27 (2): 770–775. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.10.026. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2014-05-19）. 
  116. ^ Douglas A. Gentile; et al. The Effects of Prosocial Video Games on Prosocial Behaviors: International Evidence From Correlational, Longitudinal, and Experimental Studies. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2009, 35 (6): 752–63. PMC 2678173  . PMID 19321812. doi:10.1177/0146167209333045. 
  117. ^ "Video Game Violence Use Among "Vulnerability to violent video games: A review and integration of personality research."
  118. ^ 118.0 118.1 "Literature review on the impact of playing violent video games on aggression" Australian government 2010.
  119. ^ Adachi, Paul J. C.; Willoughby, Teena. The effect of violent video games on aggression: Is it more than just the violence?. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2011-01-01, 16 (1): 55–62. S2CID 143649264. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2010.12.002. 
  120. ^ Adachi & Willoughby. The Effect of Video Game Competition and Violence on Aggressive Behavior: Which Characteristic Has the Greatest Influence? (PDF). Psychology of Violence. 2013. 
  121. ^ Konrath, Sara H.; O'Brien, Edward H.; Hsing, Courtney. Changes in Dispositional Empathy in American College Students Over Time: A Meta-Analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review. May 2011, 15 (2): 180–198 [27 June 2024]. ISSN 1088-8683. PMID 20688954. doi:10.1177/1088868310377395 （英语）. 
  122. ^ Von Salisch, M.; et al. Preference for violent electronic games and aggressive behavior among children: the beginning of the downward spiral?. Media Psychology. 2011, 14 (3): 233–258. S2CID 145764509. doi:10.1080/15213269.2011.596468. 
  123. ^ Bennerstedt, Ulrika; Ivarsson, Jonas; Linderoth, Jonas. How gamers manage aggression: Situating skills in collaborative computer games. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning. 2011, 7 (1): 43–61. S2CID 1595007. doi:10.1007/s11412-011-9136-6. 
  124. ^ On Media Theory...: UPDATE: Four Respond to 228, Responding to the APA: Dissent Within the Academy Regarding Media Violence (#ECA14 Panel). Onmediatheory.blogspot.com. [17 February 2015]. 
  125. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Violent video games and the Supreme Court: Lessons for the scientific community in the wake of Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association. American Psychologist. 2013, 68 (2): 57–74. PMID 23421606. doi:10.1037/a0030597. 
  126. ^ Scholar's Open Letter to the APA Task Force On Violent Media Opposing APA Policy Statements on Violent Media. Scribd.com. [17 February 2015]. 
  127. ^ 127.0 127.1 A Hornet's Nest Over Violent Video Games – The Conversation - Blogs - The Chronicle of Higher Education. Chronicle.com. October 16, 2013 [17 February 2015]. 
  128. ^ Granic G. et al. "The Benefits of Playing Video Games" APA 2013.
  129. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J.; Olson, Cheryl K. Video Game Violence Use Among "Vulnerable" Populations: The Impact of Violent Games on Delinquency and Bullying Among Children with Clinically Elevated Depression or Attention Deficit Symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2013, 43 (1): 127–136. PMID 23975351. S2CID 207207723. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9986-5. 
  130. ^ Villanova Professor: Violent video games don't cause real life violence in most cases. www.timesherald.com. September 30, 2014 [2015-10-20]. 
  131. ^ Przybylski, Andrew. Competence-impeding electronic games and players' aggressive feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2014, 106 (3): 441–457. PMID 24377357. S2CID 5651868. doi:10.1037/a0034820. 
  132. ^ Hull, Jay G.; Brunelle, Timothy J.; Prescott, Anna T.; Sargent, James D. A longitudinal study of risk-glorifying video games and behavioral deviance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2014-08-01, 107 (2): 300–325. ISSN 1939-1315. PMC 4151190  . PMID 25090130. doi:10.1037/a0036058. 
  133. ^ APA Review Confirms Link Between Playing Violent Video Games and Aggression. American Psychological Association. 13 August 2015 [16 December 2015]. 
  134. ^ APA Says Video Games Make You Violent, but Critics Cry Bias. Newsweek. 20 August 2015 [19 December 2015]. 
  135. ^ Engelhardt, Christopher. Effects of violent-video-game exposure on aggressive behavior, aggressive-thought accessibility, and aggressive affect among adults with and without autism spectrum disorder (PDF). Psychological Science. 2015, 26 (8): 1187–1200. PMID 26113064. S2CID 17630510. doi:10.1177/0956797615583038. 
  136. ^ Gabbiadini, Alessandro; Riva, Paolo; Andrighetto, Luca; Volpato, Chiara; Bushman, Brad J. Acting like a Tough Guy: Violent-Sexist Video Games, Identification with Game Characters, Masculine Beliefs, & Empathy for Female Violence Victims. PLOS ONE. 2016-04-13, 11 (4): e0152121. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1152121G. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4830454  . PMID 27074057. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152121  . 
  137. ^ Sherry J. "Mass media effects research: advances through meta-analysis." 2007 p244. "Violent Video Games and Aggression: Why Can't We Find Effects?"
  138. ^ Anderson C. et al. "Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in Eastern and Western countries." Psychological Bulletin 2010 136 p151–173.
  139. ^ Ferguson C. "Blazing angels or resident evil: can violent video games be a force for good?" Review of General Psychology 14 p68–81.
  140. ^ Ferguson C. and Kilburn J. "Much ado about nothing: the mis-estimation and overinterpretation of violent video game effects in eastern and western nations. A comment on Anderson et al. (2010)." Psychological Bulletin 2010 136(2) p174–178.
  141. ^ Violence & Video Games: A Weak, Meaningless Correlation. Psych Central.com. [17 February 2015]. 
  142. ^ Anderson C. et al. "Much ado about something: violent video game effects and a school of red herring. A reply to Ferguson and Kilburn (2010)." Psychological Bulletin 2010 136 (2) p182–187
  143. ^ L. Rowell Huesmann: "Nailing the coffin shut on doubts that violent video games stimulate aggression"
  144. ^ APA PsycNet. 
  145. ^ APA PsycNet. 
  146. ^ Psychology, Christopher J. Ferguson Associate Professor of; University, Stetson. Do Angry Birds Make for Angry Children?. The Huffington Post. 2015-10-13 [2017-01-03]. 
  147. ^ Markey, Patrick. Finding the Middle Ground in Violent Video Game Research: Lessons From Ferguson (2015) (PDF). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015, 10 (5): 667–670. PMID 26386003. S2CID 20511943. doi:10.1177/1745691615592236. 
  148. ^ Boxer, P.; Groves, C. L.; Docherty, M. Video Games Do Indeed Influence Children and Adolescents' Aggression, Prosocial Behavior, and Academic Performance: A Clearer Reading of Ferguson (2015). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015-09-19, 10 (5): 671–673. ISSN 1745-6924. PMID 26386004. S2CID 206778387. doi:10.1177/1745691615592239. 
  149. ^ Rothstein, H. R.; Bushman, B. J. Methodological and Reporting Errors in Meta-Analytic Reviews Make Other Meta-Analysts Angry: A Commentary on Ferguson (2015). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015-09-19, 10 (5): 677–679. ISSN 1745-6924. PMID 26386006. S2CID 206778373. doi:10.1177/1745691615592235. 
  150. ^ Ferguson, Christopher. Pay No Attention to That Data Behind the Curtain: On Angry Birds, Happy Children, Scholarly Squabbles, Publication Bias, and Why Betas Rule Metas (PDF). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015, 10 (5): 683–691. PMID 26386008. S2CID 9788428. doi:10.1177/1745691615593353. 
  151. ^ Kanamori & Doi. Angry Birds, Angry Children, and Angry Meta-Analysts: A Reanalysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2016, 11 (3): 408–14. PMID 27217253. S2CID 37271687. doi:10.1177/1745691616635599. 
  152. ^ Prescott, Anna T.; Sargent, James D.; Hull, Jay G. Metaanalysis of the relationship between violent video game play and physical aggression over time. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. October 2, 2018, 115 (40): 9882–9888. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.9882P. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 6176643  . PMID 30275306. doi:10.1073/pnas.1611617114  . 
  153. ^ Drummond, Aaron. Do longitudinal studies support long-term relationships between aggressive game play and youth aggressive behaviour? A meta-analytic examination. Royal Society Open Science. 2020, 7 (7): 200373. Bibcode:2020RSOS....700373D. PMC 7428266  . PMID 32874632. S2CID 220666659. doi:10.1098/rsos.200373  . 
  154. ^ Hern, Alex. Playing video games doesn't lead to violent behaviour, study shows. The Guardian. July 21, 2020 [31 July 2020]. 
  155. ^ Wendling, Patrice. Violent videos alter brain functioning, study shows. Internal Medicine News. February 2007, 40 (3): 20. doi:10.1016/s1097-8690(07)70088-4.  
  156. ^ Jarrett, Christian. Neural effects of media violence. Psychologist. August 2005, 18 (8): 462. ProQuest 211742666. 
  157. ^ Kalnin, A. J.; Edwards, C. R.; Wang, Y.; Kronenberger, W. G.; Hummer, T. A.; Mosier, K. M.; Mathews, V. P. The interacting role of media violence exposure and aggressive-disruptive behavior in adolescent brain activation during an emotional Stroop task. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 2011, 192 (1): 12–19. PMID 21376543. S2CID 45802431. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.11.005. 
  158. ^ "Arnold Schwarzenegger. Edmund G. Brown Jr. v. Entertainment Merchants Association, and Entertainment Software Association"
  159. ^ Regenbogen C.; Herrmann M.; Fehr T. The neural processing of voluntary completed, real and virtual violent and nonviolent computer game scenarios displaying predefined actions in gamers and nongamers. Society for Neuroscience. 2010, 5 (2): 221–40. PMID 19823959. S2CID 205925197. doi:10.1080/17470910903315989. 
  160. ^ Szycik, Gregor R.; Mohammadi, Bahram; Hake, Maria; Kneer, Jonas; Samii, Amir; Münte, Thomas F.; Wildt, Bert T. te. Excessive users of violent video games do not show emotional desensitization: an fMRI study. Brain Imaging and Behavior. 2016-04-16, 11 (3): 736–743. ISSN 1931-7557. PMID 27086318. S2CID 4399285. doi:10.1007/s11682-016-9549-y （英语）. 
  161. ^ Are Video Games Really That Bad?, 2014-2015, Horizon - BBC Two. BBC. [2017-01-03]. 
  162. ^ Juvenile Arrest Rates. Ojjdp.gov. [2015-02-18]. 
  163. ^ Home. Ojp.usdoj.gov. [17 February 2015]. （原始内容存档于December 11, 2009）. 
  164. ^ Home. Ojp.usdoj.gov. [17 February 2015]. （原始内容存档于December 11, 2009）. 
  165. ^ "Could violent video games reduce rather than increase violence?" Science Daily website 15 May 2008. Accessed 12 July 2011.
  166. ^ Kierkegaard P. "Video games and aggression." International Journal of Liability and Scientific Inquiry p411–417. 2008
  167. ^ Breuer, Johannes; Vogelgesang, Jens; Quandt, Thorsten; Festl, Ruth. Violent video games and physical aggression: Evidence for a selection effect among adolescents.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2015-10-01, 4 (4): 305–328. ISSN 2160-4142. doi:10.1037/ppm0000035 （英语）. 
  168. ^ DeCamp, Whitney. Impersonal agencies of communication: Comparing the effects of video games and other risk factors on violence.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2015-10-01, 4 (4): 296–304. ISSN 2160-4142. doi:10.1037/ppm0000037 （英语）. 
  169. ^ Przybylski, Andrew K.; Mishkin, Allison F. How the quantity and quality of electronic gaming relates to adolescents' academic engagement and psychosocial adjustment.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2016-04-01, 5 (2): 145–156. ISSN 2160-4142. doi:10.1037/ppm0000070 （英语）. 
  170. ^ Surette, Ray; Maze, Allison. Video game play and copycat crime: An exploratory analysis of an inmate population.. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2015-10-01, 4 (4): 360–374. ISSN 2160-4142. doi:10.1037/ppm0000050 （英语）. 
  171. ^ Video games do not make vulnerable teens more violent. springer.com. [2017-01-03]. 
  172. ^ Final Report and Findings of the Safe Schools Initiative (PDF). US Secret Service and US Department of Education. [2017-01-03]. 
  173. ^ Fox, J. A.; DeLateur, M. J. Mass Shootings in America: Moving Beyond Newtown. Homicide Studies. 2013-01-13, 18 (1): 125–145. ISSN 1088-7679. S2CID 145184251. doi:10.1177/1088767913510297. 
  174. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Does Media Violence Predict Societal Violence? It Depends on What You Look at and When. Journal of Communication. 2014-11-01, 65 (1): E1–E22. ISSN 1460-2466. doi:10.1111/jcom.12129. 
  175. ^ No link between movie, video game violence and societal violence? More violent video game consumption, less youth violence: Study. www.sciencedaily.com. November 5, 2014 [2017-01-03]. 
  176. ^ Cunningham, A. Scott; Engelstätter, Benjamin; Ward, Michael R. Understanding the effects of violent video games on violent crime (PDF). ZEW Discussion Papers 11-042. Center for European Economic Research: 25. 2011 [11 November 2014]. 
  177. ^ Markey, Patrick M.; Markey, Charlotte N.; French, Juliana E. Violent video games and real-world violence: Rhetoric versus data. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. Oct 2015, 4 (4): 277–295. doi:10.1037/ppm0000030. 
  178. ^ Cunningham, Scott; Engelstätter, Benjamin; Ward, Michael R. Violent Video Games and Violent Crime. Southern Economic Journal. 2016-04-01, 82 (4): 1247–1265. ISSN 2325-8012. doi:10.1002/soej.12139 （英语）. 
  179. ^ Gonzalez L. "When two tribes go to war: a history of video game controversy." GameSpot website. Accessed 3 August 2008.
  180. ^ Arnett J. (ed.) and Skalskil P. "Encyclopedia of children, adolescents, and the media: regulation, electronic games." SAGE 2007 p705–707. ISBN 9781412905305, Accessed 11 March 2013.
  181. ^ "Violent video games reward children for killing people." Executive Intelligence Review. LaRouche Publications. Accessed 24 April 2013.
  182. ^ Ferguson C. J. "The school shooting/violent video game link: causal relationship or moral panic?" Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 2008 5 p25–37.
  183. ^ Anderson C. "Violent video games: myths, facts and unanswered questions." APA 24 October 2003.
  184. ^ Royal, H. Violence and video games. The Phi Delta Kappan. October 1999, 81 (2): 173–174. 
  185. ^ Anderson C. "The influence of media violence on youth." Psychological science in the public interest website. December 2003.
  186. ^ Lynch P. "The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent aggressive attitudes and behaviors." Society for Research in Child Development April 2001.
  187. ^ Entertainment Software Association v Illinois (PDF). （原始内容 (PDF)存档于March 26, 2009）. 
  188. ^ Kutner L and Olsen C. Grand theft childhood: the surprising truth about violent video games. 2008. ISBN 0-7432-9951-5
  189. ^ "Interview with Kutner and Olsen" G4 Techdirt website 2008.
  190. ^ "The video game revolution: eight myths about video games debunked." PBS Impact of gaming essays webpage. Date not given. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
  191. ^ Hamza Shaban. Playing War: How the Military Uses Video Games. The Atlantic. 10 October 2013 [17 February 2015]. 
  192. ^ Andrew Przybylski. Americans Skeptical of Link Between Mass Shootings and Video Games. Academia.edu. [17 February 2015]. （原始内容存档于11 August 2014）.  已忽略未知参数|df= (帮助)
  193. ^ Exposé. （原始内容存档于20 February 2013）. 
  194. ^ Purpose of One Million Moms. （原始内容存档于August 8, 2014）. 
  195. ^ Parents Against Media Violence. Pamv.net. [17 February 2015]. 
  196. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. Sandy Hook Shooting: Video Games Blamed, Again. Time. December 20, 2012 [November 11, 2013]. 
  197. ^ Sandy Hook Final Report. Office of the State's Attorney, Judicial District of Danbury. Stephen J. Sedensky III, State's Attorney (PDF). ct.gov. November 25, 2013 [November 28, 2013]. 
  198. ^ Adam Lanza's motive a mystery in Sandy Hook killings. CNN. November 27, 2013 [November 28, 2013]. 
  199. ^ Trump says violent video games 'shape' young minds. BBC. BBC News. February 23, 2018 [February 23, 2018]. 
  200. ^ Fogel, Stefanie. Rhode Island Lawmaker Wants to 'Do Something Positive' With Proposed Violent Video Game Tax. Glixel. February 22, 2018 [February 23, 2018]. （原始内容存档于February 23, 2018）. 
  201. ^ Johnson, Ted. Trump Meets With Video Game Industry, Watchdog Groups to Talk Gun Violence. Variety. March 8, 2018 [March 12, 2018]. 
  202. ^ Pereira, Chris. President Trump's Video Games Meeting Included A Violent Game Montage. GameSpot. March 10, 2018 [March 12, 2018]. 
  203. ^ Spangler, Todd. Trump White House's Horribly Violent Video-Game Reel Goes Viral. Variety. March 9, 2018 [March 12, 2018]. 
  204. ^ Violence in Video Games, March 8, 2018 [2018-04-05] （英语） 
  205. ^ O'Brien, Lucy. Here's The "Violent Video Game Reel" Trump Shared At The White House. IGN. 2018-03-09 [2018-04-05] （美国英语）. 
  206. ^ Games for Change, #GameOn - 88 Seconds of Video Games, 2018-03-12 [2018-04-05] 

Ferguson, C. J., & Olson, C. K. (2014). Video Game Violence Use Among “Vulnerable” Populations: The Impact of Violent Games on Delinquency and Bullying Among Children with Clinically Elevated Depression or Attention Deficit Symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(1), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9986-5 Lee, E.-J., Kim, H. S., & Choi, S. (2021). Violent Video Games and Aggression: Stimulation or Catharsis or Both? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0033

外部链接

编辑


Category:电子游戏 Category:电子游戏争议 Category:Moral panic

检索自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:电子游戏与暴力&oldid=84375046”