纳瓦霍语
纳瓦霍语,又称纳瓦荷语(英语:Navajo或Navaho;纳瓦霍语:Diné bizaad)是一种通行于美国西南部的纳-德内语系阿萨巴斯卡-埃雅克语族德内语支的语言,它不论在地理上或语言学上,都可算是南德内语支(德内语支的语言大多通行于美国阿拉斯加和加拿大西北部的地区)的语言。
纳瓦霍语 | |
---|---|
Diné bizaad | |
母语国家和地区 | 美国 |
区域 | 亚历桑那州、新墨西哥州、犹他州、科罗拉多州 |
母语使用人数 | 170,717人 (2007年[1]) |
语系 | |
语言代码 | |
ISO 639-1 | nv |
ISO 639-2 | nav |
ISO 639-3 | nav |
ELP | Diné Bizaad (Navajo) |
濒危程度 | |
联合国教科文组织认定的濒危语言[2] 脆弱(UNESCO) |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Navaho_USC2000_PHS.svg/220px-Navaho_USC2000_PHS.svg.png)
纳瓦霍语的构成相当复杂,太平洋战争中曾作为密码在美军无线电中使用,以增加日本军破解美方密码的困难度。直到战争结束,这套系统尚未被日本破解。
纳瓦霍语的使用者人数,比起其他在通行于美墨边境以北地区的北美原住民语言都要多。在2007年,有170,717人自称自己为纳瓦霍语的使用者[1],且在此之后使用者人数依旧有所增加。
使用现状
编辑据“美国社区调查”(American Community Survey)在2007年的调查显示,纳瓦霍语的使用者人数有170,717人,这使得纳瓦霍语成为唯一能在其统计图表上被独立表示的北美原住民语言。纳瓦霍语多数的使用者生活于纳瓦霍族保留地。有2.9%的纳瓦霍语使用者为单语使用者,即其缺乏对英语的认知。四个纳瓦霍语使用者比例较高的城镇区域(metro- and micropolitan area)分别为法明顿(Farmington, New Mexico,有16.5%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)、加路普(Gallup, New Mexico,有12%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)、夫拉格斯达夫(Flagstaff, Arizona,有10.3%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)和阿布奎基(Albuquerque,有5.4%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)。[1]
在纳瓦霍语通行的地区,有相当数量的双语浸润(immersion)学校从事保存与推广纳瓦霍语的工作。[3]
书写系统与音系
编辑子音
编辑下表以IPA给出纳瓦霍语的子音,并于其旁附上该音书写时使用的记号:
双唇音 齿龈音 硬颚音 软颚音 喉音 中央音 边音 非唇化音 唇化音 塞音 不送气音 b [p] d [t] g [k] ʼ [ʔ] 送气音 t [tx] k [kx] kw [kxʷ] 挤喉音 tʼ [tʼ] kʼ [kʼ] 塞擦音 不送气音 dz [ts] dl [tˡ] j [tʃ] 送气音 ts [tsʰ] tł [tɬʰ] ch [tʃʰ] 挤喉音 tsʼ [tsʼ] tłʼ [tɬʼ] chʼ [tʃʼ] 连续音 清音 s [s] ł [ɬ] sh [ʃ] h [x] hw [xʷ] h [h] 浊音 z [z] l [l] zh [ʒ] gh [ɣ] ghw [ɣʷ] 鼻音 m [m] n [n] 通音 y [j] (w [w])
h这个字母,在纳瓦霍语正字法中,被用以表示两个不同的子音,当它出现在词干开头时,它发作[x],在前缀中或词干或单词之结尾时,它发作[h]。然而,当[x]出现在s代表的音之后时,它记作x而非h,以免与sh产生混淆(像násxéés(意即“我正转身”)即一例,不能将此字记作náshéés);gh [ɣ]这个子音在前母音i与e前记作y(在此些音前,[ɣ]颚化,变作[ʝ]),在o前则记作w([ɣ]在此音前唇化,变作[ɣʷ]),在a前则记作gh。出现于单词开头的喉塞音ʼ 不作表记。
对于/ɣ/ gh这个音,其唇化和颚化皆以其书写系统表记,其中y表此音之颚化,而w表该音之唇化。此书写法不分别其他子音的各种变体。
母音
编辑纳瓦霍语有四个基本的母音:a、e、i与o。每个母音都分长短音,也分非鼻音和鼻音:
- a和e等所表示者即为短母音
- aa和ee等所表示者即为长母音
- ą和ę等所表示者即为短鼻母音
- ąą和ęę等所表示者即为长鼻母音
声调
编辑纳瓦霍语有“高声”和“低声”两个声调。每个音节预设的声调为低音,高低两声在长母音的混合,可得四种可能性:
- 像áá和éé等所表示者即为高声
- 像aa和ee等所表示者即为低声
- 像aá和eé等所表示者即为起声
- 像áa和ée等所表示者即为落声
以上这些母音的各种特征的混合是可能的,就如ą́ą́(此表高声调之长鼻母音)所表示者一般。
语法
编辑就语言类型学上来讲,纳瓦霍语是种中心语标记的多式综合黏着语,唯其许多的词缀已“缩略”在一起而使之在某方面与屈折语近似。纳瓦霍语的基本语序为主词─受词─动词。德内语支的语言一般使用前缀,这在基本语序为SOV的语言中是不寻常的(此类语言一般倾向使用后缀)。
纳瓦霍语是“动词重心”的语言(verb-heavy),它有许多的动词,但名词的数量相对较少。除此名词与动词外,纳瓦霍语亦有代名词、有着不同功能的附着词素(clitic)、指示词、数词、后置词、副词和连接词等不同的词类存在。哈利·霍衣哲将名词和动词以外的所有词,都归入一个他称之为“质词”的词类中。纳瓦霍语没有与英语形容词相对应的词类,其形容词的功能以动词取代。
参见
编辑注释
编辑- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 census.gov (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)“美国社区调查”(American Community Survey)在2007年的调查。资料查阅于2010年07月13日
- ^ UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger, UNESCO
- ^ 存档副本. [2011-09-29]. (原始内容存档于2011-09-28). 像例如德非安斯要塞(Fort Defiance, Arizona)的Diné语言浸润学校(Diné Language Immersion School)就为约240名幼稚园至八年级的学生提供此类教学。
参考文献
编辑教育方面
编辑- Blair, Robert W.; Simmons, Leon; & Witherspoon, Gary.(1969). Navaho Basic Course. Brigham Young University Printing Services.
- Goossen, Irvy W.(1967). Navajo made easier: A course in conversational Navajo. Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Press.
- Goossen, Irvy W.(1995). Diné bizaad: Speak, read, write Navajo. Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf. ISBN 0-9644189-1-6
- Goossen, Irvy W.(1997). Diné bizaad: Sprechen, Lesen und Schreiben Sie Navajo. Loder, P. B.(transl.). Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf.
- Haile, Berard.(1941–1948). Learning Navaho,(Vols. 1–4). St. Michaels, AZ: St. Michael's Mission.
- Platero, Paul R.(1986). Diné bizaad bee naadzo: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults. Farmington, NM: Navajo Preparatory School.
- Platero, Paul R.; Legah, Lorene; & Platero, Linda S.(1985). Diné bizaad bee naʼadzo: A Navajo language literacy and grammar text. Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
- Tapahonso, Luci, & Schick, Eleanor.(1995). Navajo ABC: A Diné alphabet book. New York: Macmillan Books for Young Readers. ISBN 0-689-80316-8
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1985). Diné Bizaad Bóhooʼaah for secondary schools, colleges, and adults. Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1986). Diné Bizaad Bóhooʼaah I: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults. Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
- Wilson, Alan.(1969). Breakthrough Navajo: An introductory course. Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.
- Wilson, Alan.(1970). Laughter, the Navajo way. Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico at Gallup.
- Wilson, Alan.(1978). Speak Navajo: An intermediate text in communication. Gallup, NM: University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.
- Wilson, Garth A.(1995). Conversational Navajo workbook: An introductory course for non-native speakers. Blanding, UT: Conversational Navajo Publications. ISBN 0-938717-54-5.
- Yazzie, Evangeline Parsons, and Margaret Speas (2008). Diné Bizaad Bínáhoo'aah: Rediscovering the Navajo Language. Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf, Inc. ISBN 978-1-893354-73-9
语言学方面和其他参考资料
编辑- Akmajian, Adrian; & Anderson, Stephen.(1970). On the use of the fourth person in Navajo, or Navajo made harder. International Journal of American Linguistics, 36(1), 1–8.
- Creamer, Mary Helen.(1974). Ranking in Navajo nouns. Navajo Language Review, 1, 29–38.
- Faltz, Leonard M.(1998). The Navajo verb: A grammar for students and scholars. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1901-7(hb), ISBN 0-8263-1902-5(pbk)
- Frishberg, Nancy.(1972). Navajo object markers and the great chain of being. In J. Kimball(Ed.), Syntax and semantics(Vol. 1, p.259–266). New York: Seminar Press.
- Grimes, Barbara F.(Ed.)。(2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world,(14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-106-9.(Online edition: http://www.ethnologue.com/ (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), accessed on November 19, 2004)。
- Hale, Kenneth L.(1973). A note on subject–object inversion in Navajo. In B. B. Kachru, R. B. Lees, Y. Malkiel, A. Pietrangeli, & S. Saporta(Eds.), Issues in linguistics: Papers in honor of Henry and Renée Kahane(p.300–309). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Navaho phonology. University of New Mexico publications in anthropology,(No. 1)。
- Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11(1), 13–23.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11(4), 193–203.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12(1), 1–13.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12(2), 51–59.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 14(4), 247–259.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex. International Journal of American Linguistics, 15(1), 12–22.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1970). A Navajo lexicon. University of California Publications in Linguistics(No. 78). Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Kari, James.(1975). The disjunct boundary in the Navajo and Tanaina verb prefix complexes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 41, 330–345.
- Kari, James.(1976). Navajo verb prefix phonology. Garland Publishing Co.
- McDonough, Joyce.(2003). The Navajo sound system. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 1-4020-1351-5(hb); ISBN 1-4020-1352-3(pbk)
- Reichard, Gladys A.(1951). Navaho grammar. Publications of the American Ethnological Society(Vol. 21). New York: J. J. Augustin.
- Sapir, Edward.(1932). Two Navaho puns. Language, 8(3), 217-220.
- Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1942). Navaho texts. William Dwight Whitney series, Linguistic Society of America.
- Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1967). Phonology and morphology of the Navaho language. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Speas, Margaret.(1990). Phrase structure in natural language. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-0755-0
- Wall, C. Leon, & Morgan, William.(1994). Navajo-English dictionary. New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0247-4.(Originally published [1958] by U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Branch of Education, Bureau of Indian Affairs)。
- Webster, Anthony K.(2004). Coyote Poems: Navajo Poetry, Intertextuality, and Language Choice. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 28, 69-91.
- Webster, Anthony K.(2006). "ALk'idaa' Ma'ii Jooldlosh, Jini": Poetic Devices in Navajo Oral and Written Poetry. Anthropological Linguistics, 48(3), 233-265.
- Webster, Anthony K.(2009). Explorations in Navajo Poetry and Poetics. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1971). Navajo categories of objects at rest. American Anthropologist, 73, 110-127.
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1977). Language and art in the Navajo universe. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08966-8; ISBN 0-472-08965-X
- Yazzie, Sheldon A.(2005). Navajo for Beginners and Elementary Students. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Press.
- Young, Robert W.(2000). The Navajo verb system: An overview. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2172-0(hb); ISBN 0-8263-2176-3(pbk)
- Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William, Sr.(1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary(rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1
- Young, Robert W.; Morgan, William; & Midgette, Sally.(1992). Analytical lexicon of Navajo. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1356-6; ISBN 0825313566
外部链接
编辑- Hózhǫ́ Náhásdlį́į́ʼ - Language of the Holy People(有着Flash、影音和纳瓦霍语学习帮助的纳瓦霍语网站) (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), gomyson.com
- Navajo Swadesh vocabulary list of basic words (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)(改自维基辞典的Swadesh-list appendix (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)一文)
- Some English - Diné Dictionary (pronunciations), blackmesais.org
- Contrasts between Navajo consonants (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)(Peter Ladefoged的声音档). humnet.ucla.edu
- Navajo Language & Bilingual Links (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)(圣胡安学区(San Juan school district)之资料). sanjuan.k12.ut.us
- Navajo Language Academy (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), navajolanguageacademy.org
- Tuning in to Navajo: The Role of Radio in Native Language Maintenance (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), jan.ucc.nau.edu
- An Initial Exploration of the Navajo Nation's Language and Culture Initiative (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), jan.ucc.nau.edu
- Báʼóltaʼí Adoodleełgi Bínaʼniltingo Bił Hazʼą́(Center for Diné Teacher Education) (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), dinecollege.edu
- Languagegeek Unicode fonts and Navajo keyboard layouts (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), languagegeek.com
- Navajo fonts, dinecollege.edu
- The Navajo Language, library.thinkquest.org
- Navajo language (Encyclopedia of North American Indians), college.hmco.com
- Inventory of the Robert W. Young Papers, 1860-1992(bulk 1823-1980), libxml.unm.edu
- Reflections on Navajo Poetry, ou.edu
语言学方面之资料
编辑- Navajo reflections of a general theory of lexical argument structure(Ken Hale & Paul Platero), museunacional.ufrj.br
- Remarks on the syntax of the Navajo verb part I: Preliminary observations on the structure of the verb(Ken Hale), museunacional.ufrj.br
- The Navajo Prolongative and Lexical Structure(Carlotta Smith), cc.utexas.edu
- A Computational Analysis of Navajo Verb Stems(David Eddington & Jordan Lachler), linguistics.byu.edu
- Grammaticization of Tense in Navajo: The Evolution of nt’éé(Chee, Ashworth, Buescher & Kubacki), linguistics.ucsb.edu
- A methodology for the investigation of speaker’s knowledge of structure in Athabaskan Archive-It的存档,存档日期2009-03-06(Joyce McDonough & Rachel Sussman), urresearch.rochester.edu
- How to use Young and Morgan’s The Navajo Language(Joyce McDonough), bcs.rochester.edu
- Time in Navajo: Direct and Indirect Interpretation(Carlota S. Smith, Ellavina T. Perkins, Theodore B. Fernald), cc.utexas.edu
- OLAC Resources in and about the Navajo language (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)