原始猶他-阿茲特克語
原始猶他－阿茲特克語是猶他－阿茲特克語系的祖語。學界一般認為猶他－阿茲特克語系原鄉在美墨邊境地區，具體點說是在亞利桑那州和新墨西哥州的高地地區，以及相鄰的墨西哥索諾拉省和奇瓦瓦省，大致對應索諾拉沙漠和奇瓦瓦沙漠西部。可能在約5000年前由中美洲北端的中石器時代的狩獵採集部落使用。
| 原始猶他－阿茲特克語 | |
|---|---|
| PUA | |
| 重建自 | 猶他－阿茲特克語系 |
| 區域 | 中美洲北端 |
| 時代 | 3000 BC |
| 下層重建 | |
原鄉
編輯構擬出的植物詞彙能提供一些原始猶他－阿茲特克語的生態環境。Fowler將原始猶他－阿茲特克語定在亞利桑那中部，北部方言在內華達和莫哈韋沙漠，南部方言向南跨過泰皮曼走廊進入墨西哥。[1]努米語族的原鄉曾被認為在加州南部的死亡谷附近，南猶他－阿茲特克語族的原鄉則在索諾拉省沿海。[2]:137
一個相反的假說認為原始猶他－阿茲特克語的原鄉在遠得多的南方，在2001年首先由簡·希爾提出，證據是她構擬出的原始猶他－阿茲特克語的一些與玉米有關的詞彙。她的理論認為，假定的原始猶他－阿茲特克語使用者是中美洲玉米農民，逐漸向北遷徙途中也將玉米農業帶走，時間大約在4500到3000年前。使用者地理分布的割裂對應語言聯合體的破裂。[3][4]這個理論漏洞百出，猶他-阿茲特克語系研究者們沒有廣泛接受它。[5][6][7][8][9]:346-350通過計算機系統發育學，Wheeler & Whiteley (2014)[10]:113–125的研究也支持原始猶他－阿茲特克語的南方原鄉，在歷史上克拉族和部分納瓦族占據的區域內或周邊。納瓦特爾語形成了Wheeler & Whiteley (2014)的猶他-阿茲特克語系系統發生樹的基幹部分。Merrill (2012)的農業相關詞彙研究發現農業詞彙只能構擬進南猶他－阿茲特克語族。這說明原始猶他－阿茲特克語社區尚未發展出農業，從北部進入中美洲後才發展出來。[11]
2014年David L. Shaul的更近的假說提供了支持原始猶他－阿茲特克語和加利福尼亞中部語言，如艾索倫語和約庫贊語支間接觸的證據。這使得Shaul認為原始猶他－阿茲特克語曾分布在加利福尼亞中央谷地，是古加利福尼亞語言聯盟的一部分。[12]
音系
編輯元音
編輯原始猶他－阿茲特克語的元音不同尋常：*i *a *u *o *ɨ。Langacker (1970)證明第5個元音應該被擬作*ɨ，而不是*e，針對它的構擬存在長期爭議。[13][14][2]:136
輔音
編輯| 唇音 | 舌冠音 | 硬顎音 | 軟齶音 | 唇化 軟齶音 |
聲門音 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 塞音 | *p | *t | *k | *kʷ | *ʔ | |
| 塞擦音 | *ts | |||||
| 擦音 | *s | *h | ||||
| 鼻音 | *m | *n | *ŋ | |||
| R音 | *r | |||||
| 半元音 | *j | *w |
*n和*ŋ可能實際上分別是*l和*n。
詞彙
編輯下面是部分Stubbs (2011)的原始猶他－阿茲特克詞彙。[15]
- 縮寫
- NUA=北猶他－阿茲特克語族
- SUA=南猶他－阿茲特克語族
| 詞義 | 原始猶他－阿茲特克語 |
|---|---|
| 箭 | *huc(a) > *huC |
| 乳房 | *piCti(C) |
| 兀鷲、紅頭美洲鷲 | *wiLhukuN |
| 爪 | *siCtuN / *suCtuN |
| 烤 | *kwasïC / *kwasaC |
| 蟋蟀 | *tukaw-capaLa |
| 耳 | *nakka / *naNkapa (< *na(N)kasapa ?) |
| 目 | *pusi |
| 給 | *makaC |
| 手、臂 | *man > *ma |
| 頭 | *mo』o；*ku / *ku’o |
| 心 | *suna > SUA *suLa |
| 重 | pïttï / *pïttiya / *pïttV』a |
| 腳踝 | *tanapiCko / *tamukpi』-(ko) |
| 角 | *awaC / *a』awaC |
| 屋、家 | *kanni (NUA) / *kaLi (SUA); *ki |
| 丈夫 | *kuNa / *kumCa / *kuCma |
| 肝 | *nïmaC / *nïmaN |
| 肺 | *somCo / *soNCa > *soŋo |
| 月 | *mïcaC (< *mancaL ?) |
| 母親 | *yï』ï / *yïC / *yïk; *ya... |
| 口 | *tï』na > *tï』ni; *tï』nV-pa > *tï』n-pa > *tïmpa |
| 肚臍 | *sikuN / *sikʷuL |
| 脖 | *kuta / *kuLa |
| 不，非 | *ka / *kay |
| 鼻 | *yakaC / *ya』ka; *mupiC / *mukpiC |
| 棉尾兔 | *tapuC / *taput |
| 彩虹 | *ko(C)-samaLo |
| 路 | *poC / *po』ï / *powï |
| 石 | *tïmï-ta > *tïN-(pV) |
| 腐爛、膿、感染 | *piska / *pisVka |
| 鹽 | *omCa / *oNCa > oŋa |
| 臭鼬 | *huppa; *po(C)ni |
| 天 | NUA *tukuN(-pa) > SUA *tVkpa |
| 睡 | *ïppïwi / *ïCpïCi / *pïwi; *koci |
| 雪 | *kïpa; *nïpa |
| 夏 | *taCcaC < *tattaC / *taCcaC |
| 日，一天 | *ta- |
| 尾 | *kwasi |
| 舌 | *Laŋu; *akoN |
| 齒 | *tamaC / *tamaN / *taman |
| 尿 | *si』i / *si』a |
| 水 | *pa / *pa』wi |
| 什麼 | *han-ta / *hiCta / *hin-ta |
| 何時 | *ha-na-』oko |
| 誰 | *haka / *haki |
| 風、吹 | *hïka / *hïkawa / *hïkwa |
| 冬 | *tommo / *toCmo |
| 狼 | *cï』ï |
| 1 | *sïma』 / *sïmï』; *sïnu |
| 2 | *wakay / *wokay |
| 3 | *pakay |
參考
編輯
維基詞典有份詞表：原始猶他－阿茲特克語構擬詞表
- ^ Fowler 1983.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 Campbell 1997.
- ^ Hill 2001，[1].
- ^ Hill 2010，[2].
- ^ Kemp et al. 2010，[3].
- ^ Merrill et al. 2010，[4].
- ^ Brown 2010，[5].
- ^ Campbell 2003.
- ^ Campbell & Poser 2008.
- ^ Wheeler, W. C.; Whiteley, P. M. Historical linguistics as a sequence optimization problem: the evolution and biogeography of Uto‐Aztecan languages (PDF). Cladistics. 2014, 31 (2) [2021-08-20]. doi:10.1111/cla.12078. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2021-08-25）.
- ^ Merrill 2012.
- ^ Shaul 2014.
- ^ Langacker 1970，[6].
- ^ Dakin 1996，[7].
- ^ Stubbs, Brian D. 2011. Uto-Aztecan: A comparative vocabulary. Flower Mound, Texas: Shumway Family History Services.
資料
編輯- Brown, Cecil H. Lack of linguistic support for Proto-Uto-Aztecan at 8900 BP (letter). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2010, 107 (15): E34; author reply E35–6. PMC 2841887
. PMID 20231478. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914859107. - Caballero, G. Behind the Mexican Mountains: Recent Developments and New Directions in Research on Uto‐Aztecan Languages. Language and Linguistics Compass. 2011, 5 (7). doi:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2011.00287.x.:485–504
- Campbell, Lyle. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford University Press. 1997.
- Campbell, Lyle. What drives linguistic diversification and language spread?. Bellwood, Peter; Renfrew, Colin (編). Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis. Cambridge(U.K.): McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. 2003.:49–63
- Campbell, Lyle; Poser, William J. Language classification, history and method. Cambridge University Press. 2008.
- Cortina-Borja, M; Valiñas-Coalla, L. Some remarks on Uto-Aztecan Classification.. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1989, 55 (2). doi:10.1086/466114.:214–239
- Cortina-Borja, M.; Stuart-Smith, J.; Valiñas-Coalla, L. Multivariate classification methods for lexical and phonological dissimilarities and their application to the Uto-Aztecan family. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics. 2002, 9 (2). doi:10.1076/jqul.9.2.97.8485.:97–124
- Dakin, Karen. Long vowels and morpheme boundaries in Nahuatl and Uto-Aztecan: comments on historical developments (PDF). Amerindia. 1996, 21 [2021-08-20]. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2018-11-13）.
- Fowler, Catherine S. Some lexical clues to Uto-Aztecan prehistory. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1983, 49 (3). doi:10.1086/465789.:224–257
- Goddard, Ives. Introduction. Goddard, Ives (編). Handbook of North American Indians 17. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 1996.:1–16
- Haugen, J. D. Morphology at the interfaces: reduplication and noun incorporation in Uto-Aztecan. Vol. 117. John Benjamins Publishing. 2008.
- Heath, J. Uto-Aztecan* na-class verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1978, 44 (3). doi:10.1086/465546.:211–222
- Hill, Jane H. Proto-Uto-Aztecan. American Anthropologist. New Series. December 2001, 103 (4). JSTOR 684121. doi:10.1525/aa.2001.103.4.913.:913–934
- Hill, Jane H. New evidence for a Mesoamerican homeland for Proto-Uto-Aztecan. PNAS. 2010, 107 (11): E33; author reply E35–6. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107E..33H. PMC 2841890 . PMID 20231477. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914473107.
- Hill, J. H. Subgrouping in Uto-Aztecan. Language Dynamics and Change. Language Dynamics and Change. 2011, 1 (2): 241–278. doi:10.1163/221058212x643978.
- Iannucci, David. Numic historical phonology. Cornell University PhD dissertation. 1972.
- Kaufman, Terrence. Nawa linguistic prehistory. Mesoamerican Language Documentation Project. 2001 [2021-08-20]. （原始內容存檔於2016-03-03）.
- Kaufman, Terrence. Lyle Campbell , 編. Comparative Uto-Aztecan Phonology. Unpublished manuscript. 1981.
- Kemp; González-Oliver; Malhi; Monroe; Schroeder; McDonough; Rhett; Resendéz; Peñalosa-Espinoza; Buentello-Malo; Gorodetsky; Smith. Evaluating the farming/language dispersal hypothesis with genetic variation exhibited by populations in the Southwest and Mesoamerica. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2010, 107 (15): 6759–6764. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.6759K. PMC 2872417 . PMID 20351276. doi:10.1073/pnas.0905753107.
- Kroeber, Alfred Louis. Shoshonean dialects of California. The University Press. 1907 [24 August 2012].
- Kroeber, Alfred Louis. Uto-Aztecan Languages of Mexico 8. University of California Press. 1934.
- Langacker, Ronald W. The Vowels of Proto Uto-Aztecan. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1970, 36 (3): 169–180. doi:10.1086/465108.
- Langacker, R. W. An overview of Uto-Aztecan grammar. Summer Institute of Linguistics. 1977.
- Langacker, R. W. Non-distinct arguments in Uto-Aztecan. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1976.
- Manaster Ramer, Alexis. A Northern Uto-Aztecan Sound Law: *-c- → -y-¹. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1992, 58 (3): 251–268. JSTOR 3519784. doi:10.1086/ijal.58.3.3519784.
- Merrill, William L.; Hard, Robert J.; Mabry, Jonathan B.; Fritz; Adams; Roney; MacWilliams. Reply to Hill and Brown: Maize and Uto-Aztecan cultural history. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2010, 107 (11). Bibcode:2010PNAS..107E..35M. PMC 2841871 . doi:10.1073/pnas.1000923107.:E35–E36
- Merrill, W. The genetic unity of southern Uto-Aztecan. Language Dynamics and Change. 2013, 3. doi:10.1163/22105832-13030102.:68–104
- Merrill, William L. The Historical Linguistics of Uto-Aztecan Agriculture. Anthropological Linguistics. 2012, 54 (3). doi:10.1353/anl.2012.0017.:203–260
- Miller, Wick R. Numic Languages. Warren L. d』Azevedo (編). Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11, Great Basin. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. 1986.:98–106
- Miller, Wick R. A note on extinct languages of northwest Mexico of supposed Uto-Aztecan affiliation.. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1983, 49 (3). doi:10.1086/465793.:328–333
- Miller, Wick R. Uto-Aztecan languages. Ortiz, Alfonso (編). Handbook of North American Indians 10. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 1983.:113–124
- Miller, Wick R. The classification of the Uto-Aztecan languages based on lexical evidence.. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1984, 50 (1). doi:10.1086/465813.:1–24
- Mithun, Marianne. The languages of Native America. Cambridge University Press. 1999.
- Sapir, E. Southern Paiute and Nahuatl, a study in Uto-Aztekan. Journal de la Société des Américanistes. 1913, 10 (2). doi:10.3406/jsa.1913.2866.:379–425
- Shaul, David L. A Prehistory of Western North America: The Impact of Uto-Aztecan Languages. University of New Mexico Press. 2014.
- Shaul, David L.; Hill, Jane H. Tepimans, Yumans, and other Hohokam. American Antiquity. 1998, 63 (3). JSTOR 2694626. doi:10.2307/2694626.:375–396
- Steele, Susan. Uto-Aztecan: An assessment for historical and comparative linguistics. Campbell, Lyle; Mithun, Marianne (編). The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. 1979.:444–544
- Voegelin, C. F.; Voegelin, F.; Hale, K. Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan: Phonology. Memoirs of the International Journal of American Linguistics 17. Waverly Press. 1962.
- Whorf, B. L. The Comparative Linguistics of Uto-Aztecan. American Anthropologist. 1935, 37 (4): 600–608. doi:10.1525/aa.1935.37.4.02a00050 .
