美國的種族與犯罪
在美國，自20世紀以來，種族與犯罪之間的關係一直是公眾和學術關注的焦點[1]。不同種族群體之間的犯罪率差異很大。在美國，大多數兇殺案的受害者與犯罪者屬於黑人。
學術研究表明，在刑事案件中，一些少數族裔的比例過高，部分原因在於社會經濟因素，如貧困、沒有受到良好教育以及接觸有害化學品（例如鉛）和污染等因素[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]。與種族隔離有關的居住隔離也與犯罪率的種族差異有關，因為黑人歷史上長期被政府和私人阻止遷入繁榮的低犯罪率地區 [12][13][14]。
研究還表明，警察和司法系統存在著廣泛的種族和族裔歧視[15][16][17][18][19]。研究人員通過大量學術文獻比較了警察的搜查（表明被警方盤查的白人其實發現違禁品的比率較高）、法院保釋決定（表明在白人和黑人保釋人數相同的情況下，白人在審判前違規行為較多）和判刑（表明當案件的基本事實和情況相似時，陪審團和法官對黑人的判刑比白人更嚴厲），推斷出有關種族歧視的因果關係[20][21][22][23]。
參考文獻
編輯- ^ Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:ix-x); Gabbidon & Greene (2005b:37).
- ^ Sampson, Robert J. Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption. American Journal of Sociology. September 1987, 93 (2): 348–382. JSTOR 2779588. doi:10.1086/228748.
- ^ Sampson, Robert J.; Morenoff, Jeffrey D.; Raudenbush, Stephen. Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence. American Journal of Public Health. February 2005, 95 (2): 224–232. PMC 1449156
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- ^ Drum, Kevin. An updated lead-crime roundup for 2018. Mother Jones. [2021-02-20]. （原始內容存檔於2021-04-24） （美國英語）.
- ^ Shihadeh, Edward S.; Shrum, Wesley. Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race Effect?. Sociological Spectrum. 2004-07-01, 24 (4): 507–533. ISSN 0273-2173. doi:10.1080/02732170490459502.
- ^ Brown, Elizabeth; Males, Mike A. Does Age or Poverty Level Best Predict Criminal Arrest and Homicide Rates? A Preliminary Investigation. 2011 [2021-02-20]. （原始內容存檔於2021-08-13） （英語）.
- ^ Light, Michael T.; Ulmer, Jeffery T. Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality. American Sociological Review. 2016-04-01, 81 (2): 290–315. ISSN 0003-1224. doi:10.1177/0003122416635667 （英語）.
- ^ Ulmer, Jeffery T.; Harris, Casey T.; Steffensmeier, Darrell. Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons*. Social Science Quarterly. 2012, 93 (3): 799–819 [2021-04-06]. ISSN 1540-6237. PMC 4097310 . PMID 25035523. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00868.x. （原始內容存檔於2021-03-09） （英語）.
- ^ Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. The Structural Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in Process. American Sociological Review. 2000, 65 (4): 547–559 [2021-04-06]. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2657382. doi:10.2307/2657382. （原始內容存檔於2021-04-22）.
- ^ Nevin, Rick. Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure. Environmental Research. 2007-07-01, 104 (3): 315–336 [2021-04-06]. Bibcode:2007ER....104..315N. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 17451672. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2007.02.008. （原始內容存檔於2018-10-12） （英語）.
- ^ Boutwell, Brian B.; Nelson, Erik J.; Emo, Brett; Vaughn, Michael G.; Schootman, Mario; Rosenfeld, Richard; Lewis, Roger. The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime. Environmental Research. 2016-07-01, 148: 79–85. Bibcode:2016ER....148...79B. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 27035924. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.023 （英語）.
- ^ O』Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv. Crime and segregation. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. November 1, 2007, 64 (3): 391–405 [2021-04-06]. ISSN 0167-2681. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2006.07.005. （原始內容存檔於2022-02-21） （英語）.
- ^ Shihadeh, Edward S.; Flynn, Nicole. Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence. Social Forces. June 1, 1996, 74 (4): 1325–1352 [2021-04-06]. ISSN 0037-7732. doi:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325. （原始內容存檔於2020-07-08） （英語）.
- ^ Feldmeyer, Ben. The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide. The Sociological Quarterly. September 1, 2010, 51 (4): 600–623. ISSN 0038-0253. PMID 20939127. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x.
- ^ Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza. The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview. Annual Review of Criminology. 2021, 4 (1): annurev–criminol–060520–033306 [2021-04-06]. ISSN 2572-4568. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306. （原始內容存檔於2020-07-08） （英語）.
- ^ Gabbidon & Greene (2005b:37); Bowling (2006:140). See also Sampson & Wilson (2005:177–178); Myrdal (1988:88).
- ^ Engel, Robin S. Bucerius, Sandra , 編. The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration. Oxford University Press. 2014: 147 [2021-04-06]. ISBN 9780199859016. （原始內容存檔於2021-04-14）.
- ^ Drakulich, Kevin; Rodriguez-Whitney, Eric, Intentional Inequalities and Compounding Effects, The Handbook of Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.), June 22, 2018: 17–38, ISBN 9781119113799, doi:10.1002/9781119113799.ch1
- ^ Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza. The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview. Annual Review of Criminology. June 29, 2020, 4: 261–286. ISSN 2572-4568. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306.
- ^ Rehavi, M. Marit; Starr, Sonja B. Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences. Journal of Political Economy. 2014, 122 (6): 1320–1354 [2021-04-06]. ISSN 0022-3808. doi:10.1086/677255. （原始內容存檔於2021-04-17） （英語）.
- ^ Arnold, David; Dobbie, Will; Yang, Crystal S. Racial Bias in Bail Decisions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 2018, 133 (4): 1885–1932. doi:10.1093/qje/qjy012 （英語）.
- ^ Pierson, Emma; Simoiu, Camelia; Overgoor, Jan; Corbett-Davies, Sam; Jenson, Daniel; Shoemaker, Amy; Ramachandran, Vignesh; Barghouty, Phoebe; Phillips, Cheryl. A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States. Nature Human Behaviour. May 4, 2020, 4 (7): 736–745 [2021-04-06]. ISSN 2397-3374. PMID 32367028. doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1. （原始內容存檔於2021-04-30） （英語）.
- ^ Black men sentenced to more time for committing the exact same crime as a white person, study finds. washingtonpost.com. [November 23, 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2017-11-16）.
