痛苦

痛苦（suffering，pain）是构成情感现象负面效价（valence）的基本要素。痛苦的反面是快乐或幸福等。与个人对伤害或伤害威胁的感知有关^[1]。

痛苦通常分类为肉体上的与精神上的：

肉体痛苦（physical suffering）的例子如：各种类型的疼痛，过热，过冷，瘙痒，饥饿，口渴，恶心，空气饥，睡眠剥夺^[2]。
精神痛苦（mental suffering）的例子如：抑郁、绝望、丧恸、悲伤、孤独、心碎、厌恶、易激惹、愤怒、嫉妒、嫉妒、渴望、沮丧、烦闷、焦虑、恐惧、恐慌、羞耻、内疚、后悔、尴尬、羞辱、不安^[3]。

痛苦可能有各种程度的强度，从轻微到无法忍受。持续时间长度和发生频率的因素通常与强度因素相结合。受苦者或其他人对痛苦的态度可能有很大差异，这取决于它被认为是可以避免或不可避免、有用或无用、值得或不值得的。

苦在各种生物的生命中以多种方式发生，经常是戏剧性的。因此，人类活动的许多领域都与痛苦的某些方面有关。这些方面可能包括痛苦的性质、过程、起源和原因和意义、相关的个人、社会和文化行为^[4]、治疗、管理和使用。

痛苦与人类的意识有关，而且经常伴随着过去的经验。

造成痛苦的常见示例有：

需求和期望未满足
失去挚爱、亲友、宠物等重要人物
与社会群体的分离
来自外部的约束和限制
面对老化、疾病和疼痛等

字源

在汉语中，痛，是指肉体上的疼痛，而苦，则是来自于味觉上的苦涩感觉，将这两种感觉结合，就形成痛苦这个词。痛苦是一个概括性的形容语，肉体上产生的疼痛感受，可以称为痛苦，而心灵上的烦恼挣扎，也可以称为痛苦。

宗教对“苦”的诠释

参考资料

^ For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."
^ Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. IASP Pain Terminology. [September 11, 2008]. （原始内容存档于September 26, 2008）. UAB – School of Medicine – Center for Palliative and Supportive Care. [2008-09-11]. （原始内容存档于2007-10-28）. Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）: "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."
^ Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.
^ Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. Suffering, hope, and entrapment: Resilience and cultural values in Afghanistan. Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115  . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.

[1] For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."

[2] Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. IASP Pain Terminology. [September 11, 2008]. （原始内容存档于September 26, 2008）. UAB – School of Medicine – Center for Palliative and Supportive Care. [2008-09-11]. （原始内容存档于2007-10-28）. Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）: "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."

[3] Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.

[4] Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. Suffering, hope, and entrapment: Resilience and cultural values in Afghanistan. Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115  . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.

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