痛苦
痛苦(英语:suffering,pain)是构成情感现象负面效价(valence)的基本要素。痛苦的反面是快乐或幸福等。与个人对伤害或伤害威胁的感知有关[1]。
- 肉体痛苦(physical suffering)的例子如:各种类型的疼痛,过热,过冷,瘙痒,饥饿,口渴,恶心,空气饥,睡眠剥夺[2]。
- 精神痛苦(mental suffering)的例子如:抑郁、绝望、丧恸、悲伤、孤独、心碎、厌恶、易激惹、愤怒、嫉妒、渴望、沮丧、烦闷、焦虑、恐惧、恐慌、羞耻、内疚、后悔、尴尬、羞辱、不安[3]。
痛苦可能有各种程度的强度,从轻微到无法忍受。持续时间长度和发生频率的因素通常与强度因素相结合。受苦者或其他人对痛苦的态度可能有很大差异,这取决于它被认为是可以避免或不可避免、有用或无用、值得或不值得的。
苦在各种生物的生命中以多种方式发生,经常是戏剧性的。因此,人类活动的许多领域都与痛苦的某些方面有关。这些方面可能包括痛苦的性质、过程、起源和原因和意义、相关的个人、社会和文化行为[4]、治疗、管理和使用。
痛苦与人类的意识有关,而且经常伴随著过去的经验。
造成痛苦的常见示例有:
字源
编辑在汉语中,痛,是指肉体上的疼痛,而苦,则是来自于味觉上的苦涩感觉,将这两种感觉结合,就形成痛苦这个词。痛苦是一个概括性的形容语,肉体上产生的疼痛感受,可以称为痛苦,而心灵上的烦恼挣扎,也可以称为痛苦。
宗教对“苦”的诠释
编辑参考资料
编辑- ^ For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."
- ^ Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. IASP Pain Terminology. [September 11, 2008]. (原始内容存档于September 26, 2008).UAB – School of Medicine – Center for Palliative and Supportive Care. [2008-09-11]. (原始内容存档于2007-10-28). Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆): "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."
- ^ Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.
- ^ Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. Suffering, hope, and entrapment: Resilience and cultural values in Afghanistan. Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115 . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.