印度天文学

印度天文学的一些最早起源可以追溯到印度河流域文明或更早的时期。从史前到现代，天文学在印度次大陆有著悠久的历史^[1]^[2]。天文学后来发展成为吠陀的一门学科，或与韦陀研究相关的"辅助学科"之一^[3]，可以追溯到西元前1,500年或更久^[4]。已知最古老的文本是"Vedanga Jyotisha（英语：Vedanga Jyotisha）"，可追溯至西元前1400-1200年（现存形式可能为西元前700-600年）^[5]。

从西元前4世纪开始，印度天文学受到希腊天文学的影响^[6]^[7]^[8]，以及通过共同时代的早期几个世纪，例如亚瓦纳贾塔卡（英语：Yavanajataka）^[6]和 罗马卡·悉达多（英语：Romaka Siddhanta），从2世纪开始将希腊天文学的文稿翻译成梵文^[9]。

印度天文学在5-6世纪蓬勃发展，Aryabhata作品，阿里阿巴蒂亚（英语：Ariabhatiya）（《阿里亚哈塔历书》）代表了当时天文学知识的顶峰。《阿里亚哈塔历书》由四个部分组成，涵盖的主题包括时间单位、确定行星位置的方法、昼夜原因以及其它一些宇宙学概念^[10]。后来，印度天文学对穆斯林天文学、中国天文学和欧洲天文学产生了重大影响^[11]，还有其它地区。其他古典时期的天文学家，包括Brahmagupta、瓦拉哈米希拉（Varahamihira）和拉拉，进一步阐述了阿耶波多的工作。

在整个中世纪时期，直到16或17世纪，印度本土的传统天文学一直很活跃，尤其是在喀拉拉邦天文和数学学院（英语：Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics）内。

历史

一些最早的天文学形式可以追溯到印度河流域文明，或更早的时期^[1]^[2]。一些宇宙学概念出现在吠陀经中，天体运动和年的过程也是如此^[3]。《梨俱吠陀》是印度最古老的文学作品之一。《梨俱吠陀》1-64-11和48参考太阳历，将时间描述为一个有12个部分（月）和360个辐条（天）的轮子，其馀部分为5个^[12]。与其它传统一样，在科学的早期历史中，天文学和宗教（英语：Astronomy and religion）之间存在密切的联系，天文观测是宗教仪式要能够正确演示（英语：Orthopraxy）空间和时间所必需的。因此，专门用于祭坛建设的文本，《修巴经（英语：Shulba Sutras）》，讨论了高等数学和基础天文学^[13]。《Vedanga Jyotisha（英语：Vedanga Jyotisha）》是另一份已知的最早印度天文学文本^[14]，它包括关于太阳、月球、二十七宿、阴阳历的详细资讯^[15]^[16]。《Vedanga Jyotisha》描述了为了仪式的目的跟踪太阳和月球运动的规则。根据《Vedanga Jyotisha》的说法，在一个时代（yuga）或纪元（era），有5个太阳年、67个恒星月周期、1830天、1835恒星日和62个朔望月^[17]。

希腊天文学思想在西元前4世纪亚历山大大帝的印度战役（英语：Indian campaign of Alexander the Great）之后开始进入印度^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]。到西元初期，印度-希腊语对传统天文学的影响是显而易见的，例如Yavanajataka（英语：Yavanajataka）^[6]和Romaka Siddhanta（英语：Romaka Siddhanta）^[9]等文本。后来的天文学家提到在这一时期存在著各种各样的悉檀（siddhanta），包括其中一个文本被称为“Surya Siddhanta（英语：Surya Siddhanta）”。这些不是固定的文字，而只是口头的知识传统，其内容并不真的存在。今天被称为“Surya Siddhanta”的文本可追溯到古普塔时期，并被阿耶波多承接。

印度天文学的古典时代始于古普塔时代晚期，即5至6世纪。

伐罗诃密希罗（505 CE）的《天文学五经论》之一的“Pañcasiddh257ntik（英语：Pancha Siddhantika）”，类似于使用晷影器从阴影的任何三个位置确定子午线方向的方法^[13]。在阿耶波多时代，行星的运动被认为是椭圆形而非圆形^[18]。其他主题包括不同时间单位的定义，行星运动的离心率模型、行星运动的周转圆模型，以及从地球对各颗行星位置的经度校正^[18] 。

1871-1872年的印度历中的一页。

日历

进阶读物

Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and culture, Monograph series, Volume 3. Mathematics, Astronomy and Biology in Indian Tradition edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar
Brennand, William, Hindu Astronomy, Chas.Straker & Sons, London, 1896
Maunder, E. Walter, The Indian Eclipse 1898, Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd., London, 1899
Kak, Subhash. Birth and early development of Indian astronomy. Kluwer, 2000.
Kak, S. (2000). The astronomical code of the R̥gveda. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
Kak, Subhash C. "The astronomy of the age of geometric altars." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 36 (1995): 385.
Kak, Subhash C. "Knowledge of planets in the third millennium BC." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 37 (1996): 709.
Kak, S. C. (1 January 1993). Astronomy of the vedic altars. Vistas in Astronomy: Part 1, 36, 117–140.
Kak, Subhash C. "Archaeoastronomy and literature." Current Science 73.7 (1997): 624–627.

注解

^ ^1.0 ^1.1 Pierre-Yves Bely; Carol Christian; Jean-René Roy. A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. 2010-03-11: 197. ISBN 9780521180665.
^ ^2.0 ^2.1 Ashfaque, Syed Mohammad. Astronomy in the Indus Valley Civilization A Survey of the Problems and Possibilities of the Ancient Indian Astronomy and Cosmology in the Light of Indus Script Decipherment by the Finnish Scholars. Centaurus. 1977, 21 (2): 149–193. Bibcode:1977Cent...21..149A. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x.
^ ^3.0 ^3.1 Sarma (2008), Astronomy in India
^ The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts, Roshen Dalal, p.188
^ Subbarayappa, B. V. Indian astronomy: An historical perspective. Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. (编). Cosmic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. 14 September 1989: 25–40. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.
^ ^6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 ^6.3 Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 [1]
^ ^7.0 ^7.1 Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 [2]
^ ^8.0 ^8.1 The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 [3]
^ ^9.0 ^9.1 ^9.2 Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 [4]
^ Clark, Walter. Aryabhatiya: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy - An English Translation. The University of Chicago Press. 1930 （英语）.
^ "Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography", p. 17, by Nick Kanas, 2012
^ Sidharth, B.G. The Calendric Astronomy of the Vedas. Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 1998, 26: 108 –通过NASA Astrophysics Data System.
^ ^13.0 ^13.1 引用错误：没有为名为abraham08的参考文献提供内容
^ N. P. Subramania Iyer. Kalaprakasika. Asian Educational Services. 1917: 3.
^ Ōhashi (1993)
^ Jyoti Bhusan Das Gupta. Science, Technology, Imperialism, and War. Pearson Education India. : 33.
^ Kak, Shubash. The Astronomy of the Age of Geometric Altars. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1995, 36: 385–395.
^ ^18.0 ^18.1 Hayashi (2008), Aryabhata I

参考资料

Abraham, G. (2008), "Gnomon in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 1035–1037, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Almeida, D. F.; et al. Keralese Mathematics: Its Possible Transmission to Europe and the Consequential Educational Implications. Journal of Natural Geometry. 2001, 20: 77–104.
Baber, Zaheer (1996), The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-2919-9.
Dallal, Ahmad (1999), "Science, Medicine and Technology", The Oxford History of Islam edited by John Esposito, Oxford University Press.
Hayashi, Takao (2008), Aryabhata I, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Hayashi, Takao (2008), Bhaskara I, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Hayashi, Takao (2008), Brahmagupta, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Hayashi, Takao (2008), Shripati, Encyclopædia Britannica.
J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), calendar, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Joseph, George G. (2000), The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Penguin Books, ISBN 0-691-00659-8.
King, David A. A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus. Journal for the History of Astronomy. 2002, 33 (3): 237–255. Bibcode:2002JHA....33..237K. S2CID 125329755. doi:10.1177/002182860203300302.
Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2003), "Hinduism, History of Science and Religion", Encyclopedia of Science and Religion edited by J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen, pp. 405–410, Macmillan Reference USA, ISBN 0-02-865704-7.
Raju, C. K. Computers, Mathematics Education, and the Alternative Epistemology of the Calculus in the Yuktibhasa. Philosophy East and West. 2001, 51 (3): 325–362. S2CID 170341845. doi:10.1353/pew.2001.0045.
Ramasubramanian. Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 CE) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion. Current Science. 1994, 66: 784–790.
Sarma, K.V. (2008), "Acyuta Pisarati", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, p. 19, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Sarma, K.V. (2008), "Armillary Spheres in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, p. 243, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Sarma, K.V. (2008), "Astronomy in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 317–321, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Sarma, K.V. (2008), "Lalla", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, p. 1215, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Sarma, Nataraja. Diffusion of Astronomy in the Ancient World. Endeavour. 2000, 24 (4): 157–164. PMID 11196987. doi:10.1016/s0160-9327(00)01327-2.
Sharma, V.N. (1995), Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1256-5.
Sharma, V.N. (2008), "Observatories in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 1785–1788, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press.
Subbaarayappa, B.V. (1989), "Indian astronomy: an historical perspective", Cosmic Perspectives edited by Biswas etc., pp. 25–41. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34354-2.
Tripathi, V.N. (2008), "Astrology in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 264–267, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.

[question-1] 1.0 ^1.1 Pierre-Yves Bely; Carol Christian; Jean-René Roy. A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. 2010-03-11: 197. ISBN 9780521180665.

[wiley-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Ashfaque, Syed Mohammad. Astronomy in the Indus Valley Civilization A Survey of the Problems and Possibilities of the Ancient Indian Astronomy and Cosmology in the Light of Indus Script Decipherment by the Finnish Scholars. Centaurus. 1977, 21 (2): 149–193. Bibcode:1977Cent...21..149A. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x.

[Sarma-Ast-Ind-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Sarma (2008), Astronomy in India

[4] The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts, Roshen Dalal, p.188

[Cosmic-5] Subbarayappa, B. V. Indian astronomy: An historical perspective. Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. (编). Cosmic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. 14 September 1989: 25–40. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.

[Andersen-6] 6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 ^6.3 Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 [1]

[Leverington-7] 7.0 ^7.1 Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 [2]

[Evans-8] 8.0 ^8.1 The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 [3]

[Naskar-9] 9.0 ^9.1 ^9.2 Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 [4]

[10] Clark, Walter. Aryabhatiya: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy - An English Translation. The University of Chicago Press. 1930 （英语）.

[11] "Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography", p. 17, by Nick Kanas, 2012

[12] Sidharth, B.G. The Calendric Astronomy of the Vedas. Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 1998, 26: 108 –通过NASA Astrophysics Data System.

[abraham08-13] 13.0 ^13.1 引用错误：没有为名为abraham08的参考文献提供内容

[14] N. P. Subramania Iyer. Kalaprakasika. Asian Educational Services. 1917: 3.

[15] Ōhashi (1993)

[16] Jyoti Bhusan Das Gupta. Science, Technology, Imperialism, and War. Pearson Education India. : 33.

[17] Kak, Shubash. The Astronomy of the Age of Geometric Altars. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1995, 36: 385–395.

[Hayashi08Aryabhata-18] 18.0 ^18.1 Hayashi (2008), Aryabhata I

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]