干糞燃料

干糞燃料是經過乾燥的動物糞便，是一種歷史悠久的燃料。雖然它有效的重複利用資源，卻會產生空氣汙染。^[1]

優點

使用乾燥動物糞便的好處包括： ^[2]

廉價
高效
減少伐木
容易取得
與其他燃料相比，環境污染更少
使動物糞便被安全的處理，而不會汙染水源
可持續且可再生

各國的傳統乾糞燃料

正在被曝曬的糞餅

以糞餅為燃料的火堆。

干動物糞便從史前時期就開始使用，^[3]赤道幾內亞有考古證據^[4] 。聖經中有動物和人類糞便被當作燃料的紀載，^[5]已知古波斯、^[6]古埃及和近代早期的英格蘭都會使用乾糞作為燃料。^[7]

非洲

在埃及，動物糞便（來自牛和水牛）與稻草或農業副產物混合製成的傳統乾燥燃料稱為Gella或Jilla（中世紀時稱為khoroshtof）。 ^[8] 1980年代，包含糞餅在內的傳統燃料占埃及農村地區總能源消耗的76.4%。^[9]

此外，埃及也使用駱駝糞便作為燃料。

亞洲

由畜牧業副產品製成的糞餅（Dung cakes）是印度的一種傳統燃料，通常是牛糞或水牛糞，由婦女製造，用於在傳統的灶中燃燒以烹飪。通常一塊糞餅可提供相當於2100 kJ的能量。

美洲

美國大平原上的早期歐洲定居者使用干水牛糞作為燃料，稱為buffalo chips。
普韋布洛人使用干動物糞便作為燃料。

現代技術開發

秘魯的MN Yavari號由倫敦泰晤士鋼鐵廠於1861-62年建造，直到1914年為止一直使用乾燥的美洲駝糞作為瓦特蒸汽機的燃料

大部分的傳統乾糞燃料都是來自家畜，不過理論來說，人類糞便也可以當作燃料來源。自2011年以來，比爾及梅琳達·蓋茨基金會一直在支持安全收集糞便的廁所開發，以推廣更安全、更有效的方法來處理人類排泄物；^[10]Omni處理器是使用人類糞便作為燃料源的另一個例子。

空氣污染

牛糞餅的燃燒會以多種揮發性形式將有機污染物釋放為氣相和顆粒相。

干糞餅的燃燒已被證明會釋放數千種有機成分到氣相和氣溶膠相中，其中一些是糞便燃燒的獨特示蹤劑，例如糞甾烷醇。 ^[11]糞餅一般來說排放較高，且其釋放的物質易與羥基自由基反應，從印度德里收集的牛糞餅樣本燃燒時釋放的揮發性有機化合物比薪材樣本多四倍左右，且與羥基自由基的反應性約為液化石油氣排放物的120倍。^[12]牛糞餅也被證明燃燒時會產生比薪材多3-4倍的二次有機氣溶膠，並釋放出更多有毒的多環芳烴。 ^[13]

參考資料

^ Mudway, Ian S; Duggan, Sean T; Venkataraman, Chandra; Habib, Gazala; Kelly, Frank J; Grigg, Jonathan. Combustion of dried animal dung as biofuel results in the generation of highly redox active fine particulates. Particle and Fibre Toxicology. 2005, 2 (1): 6. ISSN 1743-8977. PMC 1262769  . PMID 16202154. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-2-6.
^ Pyrolysis Processing of Animal Manure to Produce Fuel Gases (PDF). [2012-10-11]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2012-12-03）.
^ Mlekuž, Dimitrij. The materiality of dung: the manipulation of dung in Neolithic Mediterranean caves. Documenta Praehistorica. 2009, 36: 219–225. ISSN 1854-2492. doi:10.4312/dp.36.14  .
^ Picornell Gelabert, Llorenç; Asouti, Eleni; Martí, Ethel Allué. The ethnoarchaeology of firewood management in the Fang villages of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa: Implications for the interpretation of wood fuel remains from archaeological sites. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 2011, 30 (3): 375–384. ISSN 0278-4165. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2011.05.002.
^ The Bible Ezekiel 4:12 And you shall eat it as barley cakes, and you shall bake it with dung that comes out of man. http://bibleapps.com/ezekiel/4-12.htm （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
^ Miller, Naomi. The use of dung as fuel: an ethnographic example and an archaeological application | Naomi Miller. Paléorient (Academia.edu). 1984-01-01, 10 (2): 71–79 [2012-10-11]. doi:10.3406/paleo.1984.941. （原始內容存檔於2023-08-10）.
^ Fiennes, Celia. Griffiths , 編. Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary. Field & Tuer, The Leadenhall Press, E.C. 1888 [1702] [2023-08-10]. （原始內容存檔於2023-08-11）.
^ Egyptian cities and markets: What's behind a name? - Street Smart - Folk - Ahram Online. English.ahram.org.eg. 2012-06-28 [2012-10-11]. （原始內容存檔於2023-08-10）.
^ Biogas Technology Transfer To Rural Communities in Egypt (PDF). [2012-10-11]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2011-11-23）.
^ Elisabeth von Muench, Dorothee Spuhler, Trevor Surridge, Nelson Ekane, Kim Andersson, Emine Goekce Fidan, Arno Rosemarin (2013) Sustainable Sanitation Alliance members take a closer look at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s sanitation grants （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, Sustainable Sanitation Practice Journal, Issue 17, pp. 4–10
^ Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Farren, Naomi J.; Hopkins, James R.; Ward, Martyn W.; Swift, Stefan J.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu. Emissions of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds from domestic fuels used in Delhi, India. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2021-02-18, 21 (4): 2407–2426 [2023-08-10]. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2407S. ISSN 1680-7316. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2407-2021  . （原始內容存檔於2023-02-27）（英語）.
^ Stewart, Gareth J.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Nelson, Beth S.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu; Ahlawat, Sakshi; Yadav, Lokesh; Sharma, Sudhir K. Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds from combustion of domestic fuels in Delhi, India. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2021-02-18, 21 (4): 2383–2406 [2023-08-10]. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2383S. ISSN 1680-7316. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2383-2021  . （原始內容存檔於2023-04-05）（英語）.
^ Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Yunus, Siti S. M.; Hewitt, C. Nicholas; Nemitz, Eiko; Mandal, Tuhin K.; Gadi, Ranu; Sahu, Lokesh K. Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India. Environmental Science: Atmospheres. 2021-02-25, 1 (2): 104–117. ISSN 2634-3606. doi:10.1039/D0EA00009D  （英語）.

[MudwayDuggan2005-1] Mudway, Ian S; Duggan, Sean T; Venkataraman, Chandra; Habib, Gazala; Kelly, Frank J; Grigg, Jonathan. Combustion of dried animal dung as biofuel results in the generation of highly redox active fine particulates. Particle and Fibre Toxicology. 2005, 2 (1): 6. ISSN 1743-8977. PMC 1262769  . PMID 16202154. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-2-6.

[2] Pyrolysis Processing of Animal Manure to Produce Fuel Gases (PDF). [2012-10-11]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2012-12-03）.

[Mlekuž2009-3] Mlekuž, Dimitrij. The materiality of dung: the manipulation of dung in Neolithic Mediterranean caves. Documenta Praehistorica. 2009, 36: 219–225. ISSN 1854-2492. doi:10.4312/dp.36.14  .

[Picornell_GelabertAsouti2011-4] Picornell Gelabert, Llorenç; Asouti, Eleni; Martí, Ethel Allué. The ethnoarchaeology of firewood management in the Fang villages of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa: Implications for the interpretation of wood fuel remains from archaeological sites. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 2011, 30 (3): 375–384. ISSN 0278-4165. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2011.05.002.

[5] The Bible Ezekiel 4:12 And you shall eat it as barley cakes, and you shall bake it with dung that comes out of man. http://bibleapps.com/ezekiel/4-12.htm （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）

[academia1-6] Miller, Naomi. The use of dung as fuel: an ethnographic example and an archaeological application | Naomi Miller. Paléorient (Academia.edu). 1984-01-01, 10 (2): 71–79 [2012-10-11]. doi:10.3406/paleo.1984.941. （原始內容存檔於2023-08-10）.

[7] Fiennes, Celia. Griffiths , 編. Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary. Field & Tuer, The Leadenhall Press, E.C. 1888 [1702] [2023-08-10]. （原始內容存檔於2023-08-11）.

[8] Egyptian cities and markets: What's behind a name? - Street Smart - Folk - Ahram Online. English.ahram.org.eg. 2012-06-28 [2012-10-11]. （原始內容存檔於2023-08-10）.

[9] Biogas Technology Transfer To Rural Communities in Egypt (PDF). [2012-10-11]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2011-11-23）.

[10] Elisabeth von Muench, Dorothee Spuhler, Trevor Surridge, Nelson Ekane, Kim Andersson, Emine Goekce Fidan, Arno Rosemarin (2013) Sustainable Sanitation Alliance members take a closer look at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s sanitation grants （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, Sustainable Sanitation Practice Journal, Issue 17, pp. 4–10

[11] Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Farren, Naomi J.; Hopkins, James R.; Ward, Martyn W.; Swift, Stefan J.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu. Emissions of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds from domestic fuels used in Delhi, India. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2021-02-18, 21 (4): 2407–2426 [2023-08-10]. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2407S. ISSN 1680-7316. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2407-2021  . （原始內容存檔於2023-02-27）（英語）.

[12] Stewart, Gareth J.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Nelson, Beth S.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu; Ahlawat, Sakshi; Yadav, Lokesh; Sharma, Sudhir K. Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds from combustion of domestic fuels in Delhi, India. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2021-02-18, 21 (4): 2383–2406 [2023-08-10]. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2383S. ISSN 1680-7316. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2383-2021  . （原始內容存檔於2023-04-05）（英語）.

[13] Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Yunus, Siti S. M.; Hewitt, C. Nicholas; Nemitz, Eiko; Mandal, Tuhin K.; Gadi, Ranu; Sahu, Lokesh K. Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India. Environmental Science: Atmospheres. 2021-02-25, 1 (2): 104–117. ISSN 2634-3606. doi:10.1039/D0EA00009D  （英語）.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]