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三個人正持雙筒望遠鏡觀鳥

觀鳥（英語：Birdwatching、Birding）即觀察鳥類，既可以是一項休閒活動，也可是公眾科學的一種形式。觀鳥者可以使用裸眼觀察，藉助雙筒望遠鏡、望遠鏡等視覺增強設備觀察，聆聽鳥鳴[1][2]，觀看公共攝像頭，或查看智能餵鳥器（英語：Bird feeder）自帶的攝像機。

絕大多數觀鳥者參與到觀鳥活動中都是用以消遣或社交，這與鳥類學家不同，後者會使用正式的科學方法研究鳥類。[1][2]

用詞

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芬蘭漢卡薩爾米的一座觀鳥塔

「birdwatching」一詞首次記載是1712年威廉·歐茲沃思（William Oldsworth）的作品。而「birding」一詞也曾用於代表捕鳥或用火器狩獵，例如莎士比亞的《溫莎的風流婦人》中就有這樣一句：「She laments sir... her husband goes this morning a-birding.」[3]如今，「birding」和「birdwatching」這兩個詞有時可以互換使用，不過某些人更傾向於使用「birding」，一定程度上因為這個詞並沒有將觀鳥行為限制在視覺，而是包括了聽覺享受。

在北美洲，許多觀鳥者並不自認為是「birdwatcher」，而使用「birder」，這個詞對於外行通常不太熟悉。從最基礎的層面上來說，兩者可以根據投入狀態和熱情區別，儘管這十分主管。通常自稱為「birder」的人會認為自己更精通於細節，例如辨識能力（聽覺或視覺）、換羽、鳥類分布、遷徙時間和棲息地等。這些投入的「birder」往往會為了尋找鳥類專門外出旅行，而「birdwatcher」則被一些愛好者描述為活動範圍較為有限，可能只在自家院子或本地公園中觀看鳥類。[1]實際上，1969年《Birding（英語：Birding (magazine)）》雜誌的「觀鳥用語」中曾給出如下定義：

Birder：這一用語常用於描述認真從事觀鳥這一愛好的人。可以是專業人士或業餘愛好者。

Birding：一種愛好，有這種愛好的人通常喜愛鳥類研究、列清單或其他涉及鳥類生活的活動所帶來的挑戰。

Bird-watcher：一個模稜兩可的用語，用於描述任何觀察鳥類的人，無論是出於什麼原因，並且不應用來指代嚴肅的觀鳥者。

——Birding，Volume 1, No.2

「twitching」是一個英式用語，表示「追尋曾經有過定位的稀有鳥類」的行為。在北美洲，一般被稱作「chasing」。「twitcher」一詞雖然有時會被誤用為「birder」的同義詞，但實際上是用來描述一類特定的人群，他們會長途跋涉只為一睹稀有鳥類，並且將這種鳥「tick」[註 1]或列入清單。[2][4]這個術語起源於1950年代，最初用來表示一位英國觀鳥者霍華德·梅德赫斯特（Howard Medhurst）十分焦慮的行為。[5]早先會使用「pot-hunter」、「tally-hunter」或「tick-hunter」來描述那些追尋稀有鳥的人。這種行為的主要目的一般都是在個人清單上添加新物種。有些觀鳥者會相互競爭，積累最長的物種清單。追尋鳥類的行為本身被稱為「twitch」或「chase」。逗留時間較長，人們可以看到的稀有鳥會被描述為「twitchable」或「chaseable」。[2][6][4]

在英國、荷蘭、丹麥、愛爾蘭、芬蘭、瑞典等國，追尋鳥類的行為有長足發展。這些國家面積不太大，因而可以較快地旅行全國，並且相對方便。英國最受歡迎的「twitch」活動曾吸引了大量人群；例如，約有2500人前往肯特郡觀看一隻原分布於北美的金翅蟲森鶯（英語：golden-winged warbler）。[7]這個群體也發展出了其自有的用語（英語：Twitchers' vocabulary）。例如，沒能看到稀有鳥的「twitcher」會被描述為「dipped out」；如果有其他人反而看到了，他們會感到「gripped off」。「suppression」表示對其他「twitcher」隱藏稀有鳥消息的行為。[2]

許多觀鳥者都會有自己的鳥類清單（英語：Life list），上面記錄了這個人見過的所有物種，通常還會記錄日期和地點。如果要將清單提交至美國觀鳥協會（英語：American Birding Association），該協會則會對於鳥種記錄的要求有明確規定；不過如果僅用於個人記錄， 標準則十分主觀。部分觀鳥者會將通過聆聽辨識的鳥類計數，而有的則只會記錄通過視覺辨識的鳥種。有的人還會維護「國家清單（country list）」、「州清單（state list）」、「縣清單（county list）」、「定點清單（yard list）[註 2]」、「年清單（year list）」等，或者上述清單的組合。

歷史

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1921年6月，新南威爾士，觀鳥攝影家亞歷山大·休·奇澤姆（英語：Alexander Hugh Chisholm）

最早不專注於鳥類的實用價值（如食用），而是美學價值而觀察鳥類的行為可以追溯至18世紀晚期，即吉爾伯特·懷特（英語：Gilbert White）、托馬斯·比伊克（英語：Thomas Bewick）、喬治·蒙塔古和約翰·克萊爾（英語：John Clare）的作品。[8]維多利亞時代，鳥類以及自然歷史的研究在英國日漸普遍，這通常又與藏品（英語：bird collections）、鳥蛋、後來還有皮毛相關，因而逐漸成為人們關注的對象。富有的收藏家與殖民地達成協議，從世界各地收集標本。直到19世紀末期，鳥類保護的呼聲才引起了活體鳥類觀察的熱潮。期間奧杜邦學會建立，旨在打擊美國日漸盛行的鳥類貿易，保護鳥類，而在英國則有英國皇家鳥類保護協會。[9]

短語「bird watching」首次出現於埃德蒙·塞盧斯（英語：Edmund Selous）1901年所著《Bird Watching》一書的標題。[10]在北美，隨着光學器材和野外識別指南的出現，曾被認為只能通過射殺識別鳥類的觀念被打破。美國最早的野外指南是弗洛倫絲·梅里亞姆·貝莉（英語：Florence Merriam Bailey）於1889年所著的《Birds through an Opera Glass》。[11]

Birding in North America was focused in the early and mid-20th century in the eastern seaboard region, and was influenced by the works of Ludlow Griscom and later Roger Tory Peterson. Bird Neighbors (1897) by Neltje Blanchan, an early birding book, sold over 250,000 copies.[12] It was illustrated with color photographs of stuffed birds.[13]

The organization and networking of those interested in birds began through organizations like the Audubon Society, which was against the killing of birds, and the American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). The rising popularity of the car increased the mobility of birdwatchers and this made new locations accessible.[14] Networks of birdwatchers in the UK began to form in the late 1930s under the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO). The BTO saw the potential to produce scientific results through the networks, unlike the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) which like the Audubon Society originated from the bird protection movement.[15]

Like the AOU in North America, the BOU had a focus mainly on collection-based taxonomy. The BOU changed focus to ecology and behaviour only in the 1940s.[16] The BTO movement towards 'organized birdwatching' was opposed by the RSPB, which claimed that the 'scientification' of the pastime was 'undesirable'. This stand was to change only in 1936 when the RSPB was taken over by Tom Harrisson and others. Harrisson was instrumental in the organization of pioneering surveys of the great crested grebe.[17]

Increased mobility of birdwatchers ensured that books like Where to Watch Birds by John Gooders became best-sellers.[18] By the 1960s air travel became feasible and long-distance holiday destinations opened up. By 1965, Britain's first birding tour company, Ornitholidays had been started by Lawrence Holloway.[19] Travelling far away also led to problems in name usage: British birds such as "wheatear", "heron" and "swallow" needed adjectives to differentiate them in places where there were several related species.[20] The falling cost of air travel made flying to remote birding destinations a possibility for a large number of people towards the 1980s. The need for global guides to birds increased, and one of the biggest resulting projects was the Handbook of the Birds of the World, begun in the 1990s by Josep del Hoyo, Jordi Sargatal, David A. Christie, and ornithologist Andy Elliott.[21]

Initially, birdwatching was largely restricted to developed countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Since the second half of the 20th century an increasing number of people in developing countries have engaged in this activity, such as in the Degua Tembien district of Ethiopia.[22] Transnational birding has played an important role in this, as birders in developing countries usually take up the pastime under the influence of foreign cultures with a history of birding.[23] A majority of transnational birders are middle-aged, male, affluent, and belong to the Anglophone countries or Scandinavia.[24]

Economic and environmental impact

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Spotting rare birds, such as the Antioquia brushfinch, pictured, is a goal for some birdwatchers

In the 20th century, most of the birding activity in North America was done on the east coast.[25] The publication of Roger Tory Peterson's field guide in 1934 led to the initial increase in birding. Binoculars, an essential piece of birding equipment, became more easily available after World War II, making the hobby more accessible. The practice of travelling long distances to see rare bird species was aided by the rising popularity of cars.[26]

About 4% of North Americans were interested in birding in the 1970s, and in the mid-1980s at least 11% were found to watch birds at least 20 days of the year. The number of birders was estimated at 61 million in the late 1980s. The income level of birders has been found to be well above average.[27]

The Sibley Guide to Birds, published in 2000, had sold 500,000 copies by 2002.[28] It was found that the number of birdwatchers rose, but there appeared to be a drop in birdwatching in the backyard.[29]

According to a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service study, birders contributed $36 billion to the US economy in 2006, and one fifth (20%) of all Americans are identified as birdwatchers.[30] According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2016, over 45 million Americans consider themselves birders.[31]

North American birders were estimated to have spent as much as US$32 billion in 2001.[29] The spending is on the rise around the world. Kuşcenneti National Park (KNP) at Lake Manyas, a Ramsar site in Turkey, was estimated to attract birders who spent as much as US$103,320,074 annually.[32] Guided bird tours have become a major business, with at least 127 companies offering tours worldwide. An average trip to a less-developed country costs $4,000 per person and includes about 12 participants for each of 150 trips a year. It has been suggested that this economic potential needs to be tapped for conservation.[33]

Birdwatching tourism is considered to be one of the fastest-growing nature-based tourism sectors in the world, often involving well-educated or wealthy travelers with specific interests in the places they visit.[34] In addition to this, birdwatching tourism is considered a niche market of nature-based tourism. Birdwatching and other niche tourism markets are good for market diversification and mitigating the impacts of seasonality in a tourism market as well as bringing economic resources to remote communities, thus diversifying their economies and contributing to biodiversity conservation.[34][35] It is estimated that birdwatching ecotourism contributes $41 billion per year to the U.S. economy.[31] The large funds generated by birdwatching ecotourism have been suggested as a replacement for tax revenue generated by bird hunting which has dropped to its lowest levels in decades.[31]

Birding ecotourism companies are also making contributions to conservation. Birding Ecotours, which runs both international and domestic trips, donates a minimum of 10% of its net profits to bird conservation and communities it operates in.[31] Another tour operator, Hardy Boat, has donated $200,000 to Project Puffin to conserve puffin populations off the Atlantic Coast.[31]

One of the expectations of ecotourism is that the travels of birders to a place will contribute to the improvement of the local economy, ensuring that the environment is valued and protected. Birdwatchers contribute to conservation, helping build and disseminate environmental knowledge by participating in citizen science. However, birding can bring about an increased penetration of ecosystem services that are perceived as birdwatchers' indispensable attributes. By their presence and obstinacy, birdwatchers affect the attractiveness of the breeding migration or roosting sites for birds, flush birds, and otherwise increase the pressure on birds and their habitats (e.g., luring birds out of their hideouts and stressing them by playing their calls or exposing birds and their nests to predators).[36] Furthermore, other impacts include disturbance to birds, the environment, local cultures[22] and the economy. Methods to reduce negative impact and improve the value of conservation are the subject of research.[37]

Activities

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Birders at J.N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge, Sanibel, Florida

Many birders occupy themselves with observing local species (birding in their "local patch"[38]), but may also make specific trips to observe birds in other locales. The most active times of the year for birding in temperate zones are during the spring or fall migrations when the greatest variety of birds may be seen. On these occasions, large numbers of birds travel north or south to wintering or nesting locations. Early mornings are typically better as the birds are more active and vocal making them easier to spot.

Certain locations such as a local patch of forest, wetland and coast may be favoured according to the location and season. Seawatching, or pelagic birding, is a type of birding where observers based at a coastal watch point, such as a headland, watch birds flying over the sea. This is one form of pelagic birding, though birders also seek pelagic species from seagoing vessels.

Weather plays an important role in the occurrence of rare birds. In Britain, suitable wind conditions may lead to drift migration, and an influx of birds from the east. In North America, birds caught in the tail-end of a hurricane may be blown inland.[39]

 
The Strait of Messina, Sicily, a classic migration bottleneck, seen from the Peloritani mountains

Monitoring

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Birders may take part in censuses of bird populations and migratory patterns which are sometimes specific to individual species. These birdwatchers may also count all birds in a given area, as in the Christmas Bird Count, or follow carefully designed study protocols. This kind of citizen science can assist in identifying environmental threats to the well-being of birds or, conversely, in assessing outcomes of environmental management initiatives intended to ensure the survival of at-risk species or to encourage the breeding of species for aesthetic or ecological reasons.[40]

This more scientific side of the hobby is an aspect of ornithology, coordinated in the UK by the British Trust for Ornithology. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology hosts many citizen-science projects to track the number and distribution of bird species across North America. These surveys help scientists note major changes from year to year which may occur as a result of climate change, disease, predation, and other factors.[41][42]

Environmental education

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Moroccan students watching birds at Nador's lagoon as a part of environmental education activities organized by the Spanish Ornithological Society

Because of their accessibility and ubiquity, birds are a useful tool for environmental education and awareness of environmental issues. Birdwatching can increase respect for nature and awareness of the fragility of ecosystems.

Competition

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Birdwatchers watching Britain's fifth-ever white-tailed lapwing at Caerlaverock, Scotland, 6 June 2007

Birding as a competitive event is organized in some parts of the world.[43] Such competitions encourage individuals or teams to accumulate large numbers of species within a specified time or area with special rules. Some birdwatchers will also compete by attempting to increase their life list, national list, state list, provincial list, county list, or year list. The American Birding Association was originally started as a club for "listers", but it now serves a much broader audience. Still, the ABA continues to publish an official annual report of North American list standings.

Competitive birdwatching events include:

  • Big Day: teams have 24 hours to identify as many species as possible.
  • Big Year: like a big day, but contestants are individuals, and need to be prepared to invest a great deal of time and money.
  • Big Sit or Big Stay: birdwatchers must see birds from a circle of prescribed diameter (e.g.: 17 feet[44]). Once birds are spotted, birdwatchers can leave the circle to confirm the identity, but new birds seen may not be counted.
  • Christmas Bird Count: See as many birds as possible between December 14 and January 5.
  • World Series of Birding: An annual birding competition organised by the New Jersey Audubon Society. Teams compete to identify the greatest number of bird species in a 24-hour period.
  • Migration Madness: A month-long festival celebrating bird migration. Migration Madness features a Birdathon. The Birdathon is a competition at any time during May 2024. The goal is to spot as many bird species as you can.

Networking and organization

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Prominent national and continental organizations concerned with birding include the British Trust for Ornithology and Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in the United Kingdom, and the American Birding Association and the Cornell Lab of Ornithology in North America. Many statewide or local Audubon organizations are also active in the United States, as are many provincial and local organizations in Canada. BirdLife International is an important global alliance of bird conservation organizations. Many countries and smaller regions (states/provinces) have "rarities committees" to check, accept or reject reports of rare birds made by birders.

Equipment and technology

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Birders using a tower hide to gain views over foreground vegetation. Bay of Liminka, south of Oulu, Finland.

Equipment commonly used for birding includes binoculars, a spotting scope with tripod, a smartphone, a notepad, and one or more field guides. Hides (known as blinds in North America) or observation towers are often used to conceal the observers from birds, and/or to improve viewing conditions. Virtually all optics manufacturers offer specific binoculars for birding, and some have even geared their whole brand to birders.

Sound equipment

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Recognition of bird vocalizations is an important part of a birder's toolkit. Sound information can assist in the locating, watching, identification, and sometimes sexing of birds. Recent developments in audio technology have seen recording and reproduction devices shrink in both size and price, making them accessible to a greater portion of the birding community.

The non-linear nature of digital audio technology has also made selecting and accessing the required recordings much more flexible than tape-based models. It is now possible to take a recording of every bird call you are likely to encounter in a given area out into the field stored on a device that will slip into your pocket and to retrieve calls for playback and comparison in any order you choose.

As the technology continues to improve, researchers and hobby birders have started using convolutional neural networks to mine sound recordings to identify and track specific bird calls.[45][46]

Photography

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Photography has always been a part of birding, but in the past the cost of cameras with super-telephoto lenses made this a minority, often semi-professional, interest. The advent of affordable digital cameras, which can be used in conjunction with a spotting scope or binoculars (using the technique of afocal photography, referred to by the neologism "digiscoping" or sometimes digibinning for binoculars), have made this a much more widespread aspect of the hobby.

Videography

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As with the arrival of affordable digital cameras, the development of more compact and affordable digital video cameras has made them more attractive and accessible to the birding community. Cross-over, non-linear digital models now exist that take high-quality stills at acceptable resolutions, as well as being able to record and play audio and video. The ability to capture and reproduce not only the visual characteristics of a bird, but also its patterns of movement and its sound, has wide applications for birders in the field.

Portable media players

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This class of product includes devices that can play (and in some cases record) a range of digital media, typically video, audio and still image files. Many modern digital cameras, mobile phones, and camcorders can be classified as portable media players. With the ability to store and play large quantities of information, pocket-sized devices allow a full birding multimedia library to be taken into the field and mobile Internet access makes obtaining and transmitting information possible in near real time.

Remote birdwatching

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New technologies are allowing birdwatching activities to take place over the Internet, using robotic camera installations and mobile phones set up in remote wildlife areas. Projects such as CONE [1] allow users to observe and photograph birds over the web; similarly, robotic cameras set up in largely inhospitable areas are being used to attempt the first photographs of the rare ivory-billed woodpecker. These systems represent new technologies in the birdwatcher's toolkit.[47]

Communication

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In the early 1950s, the only way of communicating new bird sightings was through the postal system and it was generally too late for the recipients to act on the information. In 1953 James Ferguson-Lees began broadcasting rare bird news on the radio in Eric Simms' Countryside program but this did not catch on. In the 1960s people began using the telephone and some people became hubs for communication. In the 1970s some cafés, such as that in Cley, Norfolk run by Nancy Gull, became centers for meeting and communication. This was replaced by telephone hotline services such as "Birdline" and "Bird Information Service".[48]

With the advent of the World Wide Web, birders have been using the Internet to convey information; this can be via mailing lists, forums, bulletin-boards, web-based databases and other social media.[49][50] While most birding lists are geographic in scope, there are special-interest lists that cater to bird-identification, 'twitchers', seabirds and raptor enthusiasts to name but a few. Messages can range from the serious to trivial, notifying others of rarities, questioning the taxonomy or identification of a species, discussing field guides and other resources, asking for advice and guidance, or organizing groups to help save habitats.

Occasional postings are mentioned in academic journals and therefore can be a valuable resource for professional and amateur birders alike.[51][52] One of the oldest, Birdchat[53] (based in the US), probably has the most subscribers, followed by the English-language fork of Eurobirdnet,[54] Birding-Aus[55] from Australia, SABirdnet[56] from South Africa and Orientalbirding.[57]

Mobile applications

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The increasing availability of mobile devices in the 2010s allowed the smartphone to become a useful tool for birding. Mobile apps can be used as replacements for physical birding field guides, such as the digital version of the Sibley Guide to Birds and the official Audubon Society app.[58] Other apps utilize machine learning to automatically identifying birds from photographs and audio recordings, such as the Cornell Lab of Ornithology's Merlin Bird ID application and iNaturalist.[58][59]

Cornell Lab of Ornithology's eBird database is a popular tool used by birders to document their sightings. In addition to serving as a citizen science project used by ornithologists to document trends in bird populations,[60] it allows birders see recent reports by other birders and search by species and location.[61] Some species, including endangered species and others likely to be disrupted by increased human activity, are designated "sensitive species" by eBird and have locations of sightings hidden from the general public.[62]

Code of conduct

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As the numbers of birdwatchers increases, there is growing concern about the impact of birdwatching on the birds and their habitat. Birdwatching etiquette is evolving in response to this concern.[63] Some examples of birdwatching etiquette include promoting the welfare of birds and their environment, limiting use of photography, pishing and playback devices to mitigate stress caused to birds, maintaining a distance away from nests and nesting colonies, and respecting private property.[64]

The lack of definite evidence, except arguably in the form of photographs, makes birding records difficult to prove but birdwatchers strive to build trust in their identification.[65] One of the few major disputes was the case of the Hastings Rarities.

Socio-psychology

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參見：Biophilia hypothesis

Ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen considers birdwatching to be an expression of the male hunting instinct, while Simon Baron-Cohen links it with a male tendency for "systemizing".[66] There have been suggestions that identification of birds may be a form of gaining status which has been compared with Kula valuables noted in Papua New Guinean cultures.[67]

A study of the motivations for birdwatching in New York concluded that initial motivations were largely similar in males and females, but males who participate actively in birding are more motivated by "sharing knowledge" with others, and active female birders are more motivated by their "intellectual" interest in studying birds, and by the "challenge" of identifying new and rare birds and improving their skills.[68] Another study suggested that males lean towards competitive birding, while females prefer recreational birdwatching.[69] While the representation of women has always been low,[70] it has been pointed out that nearly 90% of all birdwatchers in the United States are white, with only a few African Americans.[71] Other minority groups have formed organizations to support fellow birders, such as the Gay Birders Club[72] and Birding For All, formerly the Disabled Birders Association.[70][73]

The study of birdwatching has been of interest to students of the sociology of science.[74] People who have nature-based experiences report better well-being and lower psychological distress than those who do not, and birdwatching in particular was found to have higher gains in subjective well-being and more reduction in distress than more generic nature exposure, such as walks.[75][76]

Famous birdwatchers

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參見：List of birdwatchers

There are about 10,000 species of bird and only a small number of people have seen more than 7,000. Many birdwatchers have spent their entire lives trying to see all the bird species of the world.[77] The first person who started this is said to be Stuart Keith.[78]

Birders have been known to go to great lengths and some have lost their lives in the process. Phoebe Snetsinger spent her family inheritance travelling to various parts of the world while suffering from a malignant melanoma, surviving an attack and rape in New Guinea before dying in a road accident in Madagascar.[79] She saw as many as 8,400 species. The birdwatcher David Hunt who was leading a bird tour in Corbett National Park was killed by a tiger in February 1985.[80][81] In 1971, Ted Parker (who later died in an air crash in Ecuador) travelled around North America and saw 626 species.[82] This record was beaten by Kenn Kaufman in 1973 who travelled 69,000 miles and saw 671 species and spent less than a thousand dollars.[83]

In 2012, Tom Gullick, an Englishman who lives in Spain, became the first birdwatcher to log over 9,000 species.[84] In 2008, two British birders, Alan Davies and Ruth Miller, gave up their jobs, sold their home and put everything they owned into a year-long global birdwatching adventure about which they a wrote a book called The Biggest Twitch. They logged their 4,341st species on 31 December 2008, in Ecuador.[85] Noah Strycker recorded 6,042 species during 2015, overtaking Davies and Miller.[86] In 2016, Arjan Dwarshuis became the world-record holder for most species seen during the span of one year, logging 6,852 bird species in 40 countries.[87]

In early February of 2024, Peter Kaestner became the first birder to log over 10,000 species, a record surrounded by much controversy as he was initially claimed to be beaten by Jason Mann who later conceded defeated.[88]

Birdwatching literature, field guides and television programs have been popularized by birders such as Pete Dunne and Bill Oddie.

In media

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The 2011 film The Big Year depicted three birders competing in an American Birding Association Area big year, and the 2019 film Birders is a short documentary.

See also

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Similar activities

Institutions:

注釋

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  1. ^ 意為「打鈎」，即記錄在在個人記錄上
  2. ^ 十分有限的範圍內的清單，如你家後院

參考資料

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  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Dunne, Pete. Pete Dunne on Bird Watching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 2003. ISBN 978-0-395-90686-6. OCLC 50228297. 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Oddie, Bill. Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book. Frome & London: Butler & Tanner Ltd. 1980. ISBN 978-0-413-47820-7. OCLC 8960462. 
  3. ^ Moss 2004:33
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Dooley, Sean. Anoraks to Zitting Cisticola. Allen & Unwin. 2007. ISBN 978-1-74175-272-4. OCLC 174092376. 
  5. ^ Poole, Steven. Why the term 'twitch' ruffles feathers. The Guardian. 19 January 2019. 
  6. ^ Law, John; Lynch, Michael. Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity. Human Studies. 1988, 11 (2/3): 271–303. ISSN 0163-8548. JSTOR 20009028. S2CID 144536028. doi:10.1007/BF00177306. 
  7. ^ Dudley, Steve; Benton, Tim; Fraser, Peter; Ryan, John. Rare Birds Day by Day. T. & A. D. Poyser. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4081-3795-6. 
  8. ^ Moss 2004:10
  9. ^ Moss 2004:72
  10. ^ Moss 2004:88
  11. ^ Barrow, Mark. A Passion for Birds. Princeton University Press. 1998: 156–157. ISBN 978-0-691-04402-6. 
  12. ^ Shearin, Gloria. 2008. Neltje Blanchan. In: Patterson, D., Thompson, R., Bryson, S., et al., Early American Nature Writers. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0313346801. pp.62–69.
  13. ^ Dunlap, Thomas R. 2011. In the Field, Among the Feathered: A History of Birders & Their Guides, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0199734593. p. 47.
  14. ^ Moss 2004:104–106
  15. ^ Macdonald, H. What makes you a scientist is the way you look at things: ornithology and the observer 1930–1955. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences. 2002, 33 (1): 53. doi:10.1016/S1369-8486(01)00034-6. 
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Bibliography

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編輯
 
查看維基詞典中的詞條「birdwatching」。
 
維基共享資源上的相關多媒體資源：Karoke Cirno/sandbox 2
 
維基導遊上的相關旅行指南：birdwatching



{{Birds}} {{Birds in culture}} [[Category:Birdwatching| ]] [[Category:Outdoor recreation]] [[Category:Observation hobbies]]

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