维基百科

User:Karoke Cirno/sandbox 2

< User:Karoke Cirno
  关于与「User:Karoke Cirno/sandbox 2」標題相近或相同的用户页，請見「User:Karoke Cirno/sandbox 2 (消歧義)」。
  「Birding」和「Birdwatchers」均重定向至此。关于the hunting of birds，请见「Fowling」。关于the capture of birds，请见「Bird trapping」。关于the magazine，请见「Birding (magazine)」。关于纪录片，请见「观鸟者 (纪录片)」。
三个人正持双筒望远镜观鸟

观鸟（英語：Birdwatching、Birding）即观察鸟类，既可以是一项休闲活动，也可是公众科学的一种形式。观鸟者可以使用裸眼观察，借助双筒望远镜、望远镜等视觉增强设备观察，聆听鸟鸣[1][2]，观看公共摄像头，或查看智能喂鸟器（英语：Bird feeder）自带的摄像机。

绝大多数观鸟者参与到观鸟活动中都是用以消遣或社交，这与鸟类学家不同，后者会使用正式的科学方法研究鸟类。[1][2]

用词

编辑
 
芬兰汉卡萨尔米的一座观鸟塔

“birdwatching”一词首次记载是1712年威廉·欧兹沃思（William Oldsworth）的作品。而“birding”一词也曾用于代表捕鸟或用火器狩猎，例如莎士比亚的《温莎的风流妇人》中就有这样一句：“She laments sir... her husband goes this morning a-birding.”[3]如今，“birding”和“birdwatching”这两个词有时可以互换使用，不过某些人更倾向于使用“birding”，一定程度上因为这个词并没有将观鸟行为限制在视觉，而是包括了听觉享受。

在北美洲，许多观鸟者并不自认为是“birdwatcher”，而使用“birder”，这个词对于外行通常不太熟悉。从最基础的层面上来说，两者可以根据投入状态和热情区别，尽管这十分主管。通常自称为“birder”的人会认为自己更精通于细节，例如辨识能力（听觉或视觉）、换羽、鸟类分布、迁徙时间和栖息地等。这些投入的“birder”往往会为了寻找鸟类专门外出旅行，而“birdwatcher”则被一些爱好者描述为活动范围较为有限，可能只在自家院子或本地公园中观看鸟类。[1]实际上，1969年《Birding（英语：Birding (magazine)）》杂志的“观鸟用语”中曾给出如下定义：

Birder：这一用语常用于描述认真从事观鸟这一爱好的人。可以是专业人士或业余爱好者。

Birding：一种爱好，有这种爱好的人通常喜爱鸟类研究、列清单或其他涉及鸟类生活的活动所带来的挑战。

Bird-watcher：一个模棱两可的用语，用于描述任何观察鸟类的人，无论是出于什么原因，并且不应用来指代严肃的观鸟者。

——Birding，Volume 1, No.2

“twitching”是一个英式用语，表示“追寻曾经有过定位的稀有鸟类”的行为。在北美洲，一般被称作“chasing”。“twitcher”一词虽然有时会被误用为“birder”的同义词，但实际上是用来描述一类特定的人群，他们会长途跋涉只为一睹稀有鸟类，并且将这种鸟“tick”[註 1]或列入清单。[2][4]这个术语起源于1950年代，最初用来表示一位英国观鸟者霍华德·梅德赫斯特（Howard Medhurst）十分焦虑的行为。[5]早先会使用“pot-hunter”、“tally-hunter”或“tick-hunter”来描述那些追寻稀有鸟的人。这种行为的主要目的一般都是在个人清单上添加新物种。有些观鸟者会相互竞争，积累最长的物种清单。追寻鸟类的行为本身被称为“twitch”或“chase”。逗留时间较长，人们可以看到的稀有鸟会被描述为“twitchable”或“chaseable”。[2][6][4]

在英国、荷兰、丹麦、爱尔兰、芬兰、瑞典等国，追寻鸟类的行为有长足发展。这些国家面积不太大，因而可以较快地旅行全国，并且相对方便。英国最受欢迎的“twitch”活动曾吸引了大量人群；例如，约有2500人前往肯特郡观看一只原分布于北美的金翅虫森莺（英语：golden-winged warbler）。[7]这个群体也发展出了其自有的用语（英语：Twitchers' vocabulary）。例如，没能看到稀有鸟的“twitcher”会被描述为“dipped out”；如果有其他人反而看到了，他们会感到“gripped off”。“suppression”表示对其他“twitcher”隐藏稀有鸟消息的行为。[2]

许多观鸟者都会有自己的鸟类清单（英语：Life list），上面记录了这个人见过的所有物种，通常还会记录日期和地点。如果要将清单提交至美国观鸟协会（英语：American Birding Association），该协会则会对于鸟种记录的要求有明确规定；不过如果仅用于个人记录， 标准则十分主观。部分观鸟者会将通过聆听辨识的鸟类计数，而有的则只会记录通过视觉辨识的鸟种。有的人还会维护“国家清单（country list）”、“州清单（state list）”、“县清单（county list）”、“定点清单（yard list）[註 2]”、“年清单（year list）”等，或者上述清单的组合。

历史

编辑
 
1921年6月，新南威尔士，观鸟摄影家亚历山大·休·奇泽姆（英语：Alexander Hugh Chisholm）

最早不专注于鸟类的实用价值（如食用），而是美学价值而观察鸟类的行为可以追溯至18世纪晚期，即吉尔伯特·怀特（英语：Gilbert White）、托马斯·比伊克（英语：Thomas Bewick）、乔治·蒙塔古和约翰·克莱尔（英语：John Clare）的作品。[8]维多利亚时代，鸟类以及自然历史的研究在英国日渐普遍，这通常又与藏品（英语：bird collections）、鸟蛋、后来还有皮毛相关，因而逐渐成为人们关注的对象。富有的收藏家与殖民地达成协议，从世界各地收集标本。直到19世纪末期，鸟类保护的呼声才引起了活体鸟类观察的热潮。期间奥杜邦学会建立，旨在打击美国日渐盛行的鸟类贸易，保护鸟类，而在英国则有英国皇家鸟类保护协会。[9]

短语“bird watching”首次出现于埃德蒙·塞卢斯（英语：Edmund Selous）1901年所著《Bird Watching》一书的标题。[10]在北美，随着光学器材和野外识别指南的出现，曾被认为只能通过射杀识别鸟类的观念被打破。美国最早的野外指南是弗洛伦丝·梅里亚姆·贝莉（英语：Florence Merriam Bailey）于1889年所著的《Birds through an Opera Glass》。[11]

北美的观鸟于20世纪中期在东部沿海地区受到关注，这主要是受到勒德洛·格里斯科姆（英语：Ludlow Griscom）以及罗杰·托瑞·彼得森著作的影响。Neltje Blanchan（英语：Neltje Blanchan）1897年所著的早期观鸟书籍《Bird Neighbors（英语：Bird Neighbors）》迈卖出了超过25万份，[12]其中的插画都是毛绒鸟玩具（stuffed birds？）的彩色照片。[13]

对于观鸟感兴趣的人一般通过奥杜邦学会和美国鸟类学家联盟（英语：American Ornithologists' Union）这样反对猎杀鸟类的组织进行组织和联络。汽车的流行大大提高了观鸟者的机动性，使得他们可以前往从未去过的区域。[14]英国观鸟者的联络网则依托于英国鸟类学基金会（英语：British Trust for Ornithology），形成于1930年代末。基金会发现通过这样的联络网产生科学成果的潜力，跟奥杜邦协会一样起源于鸟类保护运动的皇家鸟类保护协会则不同。[15]

英国鸟类学基金会与美国鸟类学家联盟同样专注于依靠收藏进行分类研究。随后在1940年代，基金会将重心转移到了生态和行为研究。[16]基金会提出“有组织观鸟（organized birdwatching）”的运动遭到了英国皇家鸟类保护协会的反对，后者称他们并不乐见这种休闲活动的“科学化”。但1936年汤姆·哈里森（英语：Tom Harrisson）及其他人接管皇家鸟类保护协会后，其立场发生了变化。哈里森在组织对凤头䴙䴘进行首次开创性的调查中发挥了重要作用。[17]

随着观鸟者机动性进一步增强，例如约翰·古德斯（英语：John Gooders）的《Where to Watch Birds》这种书最为畅销。[18]1960年代航空交通逐渐变得便利，长距离的度假目的地也开办起来。1965年时，英国的首个观鸟旅游公司“Ornitholidays”由劳伦斯·霍洛韦（Lawrence Holloway）创办。[19]长途旅行也导致了一些名称上的问题：英国的鸟类如“wheatear（䳭）”、“heron（鹭）”、“swallow（燕）”都需要加上形容词，来跟当地多种相似的物种做区分。[20]1980年代，航空旅行的花费持续降低，绝大多数人有了飞往遥远的目的地观鸟的可能。全球鸟类指引的需求在呢国家，从而催生的影响最大的项目之一就是《世界鸟类手册（英语：Handbook of the Birds of the World）》，该项目是由约瑟夫·德尔奥约（Josep del Hoyo）、霍尔迪·萨加斯塔尔（Jordi Sargatal）、戴维·克里斯蒂（David A. Christie）和鸟类学家安迪·埃利奥特（Andy Elliott）在1990年代发起的。[21]

最初观鸟局限于英国和美国这样的发达国家，但自20世纪后半叶以来，越来越多发展中国家的观鸟爱好者参与到这项活动中来，例如埃塞俄比亚的Dogu'a Tembien（英语：Dogu'a Tembien）。[22]跨国观鸟的活动发挥了重要作用，因为发展中国家的观鸟者一般都是在具有观鸟历史的外国文化影响下，才开始这项休闲活动。[23]大部分的跨国观鸟者都是中年男性，家境富裕，通常来自英语世界国家或斯堪的那维亚。[24]

经济与环境影响

编辑
 
亲眼见到安蒂薮雀（英语：Antioquia brushfinch）这样的稀有鸟类并留下照片，是某些观鸟者的目标

20世纪时，北美洲的绝大多数观鸟活动都在东海岸。[25]1934年，罗杰·托里·彼得森（Roger Tory Peterson）出版的野外指南（英语：Peterson Field Guides）首次刺激了观鸟活动的发展。双筒望远镜这一观鸟的必备装备在二战后变得更为普及，使得这一爱好更加容易实现。而随着汽车的日益普及，长途跋涉去观赏稀有鸟类的活动也愈加常见。[26]

1970年代，北美洲约4%的人都对观鸟有兴趣，到1980年代中期，一年内观鸟超过20天的比例至少达到了11%。1980年代晚期，观鸟者的数量预计有6100万。观鸟者的收入水平超过平均。[27]

2000年出版的《西布利观鸟指南（英语：The Sibley Guide to Birds）》截至2002年共售出了50万份。[28]观鸟者的数量在不断增加，但在后院进行观鸟的人数却有所下降。[29]

根据美国鱼类及野生动物管理局的调查，2006年观鸟者对美国经济贡献了360亿美元，五分之一的美国人都被认定为观鸟者。[30]2016年，美国鱼类及野生动物管理局称超过4500万美国人自认为观鸟者。[31]

2001年，北美洲的观鸟者预计花费了至少320以美元。[29]世界范围内，其花费还在增加。土耳其曼尼亚斯湖的拉姆萨尔湿地（英语：Ramsar site）Kuşcenneti国家公园（英语：Kuşcenneti National Park）估计每年都会吸引大量观鸟者，使其花费103,320,074美元。[32]带导游的观鸟旅行已经是很常见的生意，至少有127家公司在提供遍布全球的旅行。每人每次前去欠发达国家的旅行，平均都会花费4000美元，每次旅行约有12名参与者，每年共有150次这样的旅行。有人建议，应利用其经济潜力来推动保护工作。[33]

观鸟旅游曾被认为是全球增长最快的一种自然旅游项目，旅游者通常都对特定地点感兴趣的，且受过良好教育或家境富裕。[34]除此之外，观鸟旅行还被视作自然旅游中的一个利基市场。观鸟和其他利基旅游市场有利于市场多元化，减轻旅游市场季节性的影响，并为偏远社区带来经济资源，从而实现经济多元化，并增强对生物多样性的保护。[34][35]据估计观鸟生态旅游每年为美国的经济贡献达410亿美元。[31]而观鸟生态旅游产生的巨量资金替代了鸟类狩猎产生的税收收入，同时鸟类狩猎产生的税收已降至几十年来的最低水平。[31]

观鸟生态旅游公司同样促进了生态保护。Birding Ecotours同时提供国际旅行和国内旅行，并且会将至少10%的净利润捐赠给鸟类保护团体。[31]另一家旅行社Hardy Boat已向Project Puffin（英语：Project Puffin）捐赠20万美元，以保护大西洋沿岸的海雀种群。 [31]

生态旅游其中一个目的便是，观鸟者到某地的旅行将有助于改善当地经济，促进环境得到重视和保护。观鸟者通过参与公众科学，为生态保护做出贡献，并且有助于构建和传播环保知识。然而观鸟活动会导致生态系统服务的渗透性增强（？），而观鸟者对该服务有很强的依赖性。由于观鸟者的存在，而且该群体在某些时候会格外坚持，也会影响鸟类繁殖、迁徙或栖息地点的吸引力，惊扰鸟类，并增加对鸟类及其栖息地的压力（例如引诱鸟类离开藏身之处，通过发出叫声或将鸟类及巢穴暴露给捕食者来迫使其出现等）。[36]除此之外，还可能干扰鸟类，影响当地环境、文化[22]和经济。如何降低观鸟旅游的负面影响，提高其环境保护的价值，是目前研究的重点。[37]

活动

编辑
 
佛罗里达州萨尼贝尔J.N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge（英语：J.N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge）的观鸟这

大多观鸟者主要观察当地鸟种（在其“local patch”（自留地？）观鸟[38]），但有时也会专门旅行去观看其他地区的鸟类。温带地区一年内观鸟最活跃的时段是春季或秋季的迁徙季，这段时间内能够看到最多样的鸟类。期间大量鸟类会向北或向南飞行，前往过冬地或繁殖地。清晨通常是更好的观鸟时间，因为鸟类相对活跃，而且借助鸣叫也更容易发现鸟类。

根据地点和季节的不同，如森林中的自留地？、湿地或海岸都可以是不错的观鸟点。Seawatching，或称“pelagic birding”，是观鸟的一种，观鸟者会前往海岸处的观鸟点（如海岬“headland”？），观看鸟类在海面上飞翔的场面。这也是一种远洋观鸟的形式，观鸟者也会乘坐海上船只寻找远洋鸟类。

稀有鸟类的出现受到天气影响很大。在英国，特定的风况可能会导致漂流迁徙（英语：drift migration），以及有大量鸟类从东部涌入。在北美，被困在飓风尾部的鸟类可能会被吹到内陆。[39]

 
从佩洛里塔尼山（英语：Peloritani）望向西西里的墨西拿海峡，这是一处典型的迁徙瓶颈

监测

编辑

观鸟者有时会参与到鸟类种群大小和迁徙方式的调查中，有时会限制在单一物种。参与者可能会记录下给定区域内的所有鸟类，如圣诞数鸟活动（英语：Christmas Bird Count），也可能会遵循精心设计的研究规范。此种公众科学的活动有助于确定对鸟类生存构成威胁的环境因素，或者反过来作为环境保护措施的评估指标，衡量其保护濒危物种或因美学或生态原因鼓励物种繁殖的效果。[40]

这种爱好从更科学的角度来看，属于鸟类学的一个方面，在英国由英国鸟类学基金会（英语：British Trust for Ornithology）协调组织。康奈尔鸟类学实验室曾主持多次公众科学项目，旨在追踪北美洲鸟种的数量和分布区域。这些调查能够帮助科学家注意到每一年间发生的重大变化，这可能是由气候改变、疾病、捕猎或其他因素导致。[41][42]

环境教育

编辑
 
摩洛哥学生正在纳祖尔的潟湖旁观鸟，这是由西班牙鸟类学学会（英语：Spanish Ornithological Society）组织的环境教育的组成部分

鸟类很容易见到，且具有独特性，因而成为了环境教育和监测环境问题的重要工具。观鸟能够提升人们对于自然的敬畏，并使其意识到生态环境的脆弱。

竞赛

编辑
 
观鸟者正在观察英国有记载以来第五只白尾麦鸡，摄于2007年6月6日，苏格兰Caerlaverock（英语：WWT Caerlaverock）

Birding as a competitive event is organized in some parts of the world.[43] Such competitions encourage individuals or teams to accumulate large numbers of species within a specified time or area with special rules. Some birdwatchers will also compete by attempting to increase their life list, national list, state list, provincial list, county list, or year list. The American Birding Association was originally started as a club for "listers", but it now serves a much broader audience. Still, the ABA continues to publish an official annual report of North American list standings.

Competitive birdwatching events include:

  • Big Day: teams have 24 hours to identify as many species as possible.
  • Big Year: like a big day, but contestants are individuals, and need to be prepared to invest a great deal of time and money.
  • Big Sit or Big Stay: birdwatchers must see birds from a circle of prescribed diameter (e.g.: 17 feet[44]). Once birds are spotted, birdwatchers can leave the circle to confirm the identity, but new birds seen may not be counted.
  • Christmas Bird Count: See as many birds as possible between December 14 and January 5.
  • World Series of Birding: An annual birding competition organised by the New Jersey Audubon Society. Teams compete to identify the greatest number of bird species in a 24-hour period.
  • Migration Madness: A month-long festival celebrating bird migration. Migration Madness features a Birdathon. The Birdathon is a competition at any time during May 2024. The goal is to spot as many bird species as you can.

Networking and organization

编辑

Prominent national and continental organizations concerned with birding include the British Trust for Ornithology and Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in the United Kingdom, and the American Birding Association and the Cornell Lab of Ornithology in North America. Many statewide or local Audubon organizations are also active in the United States, as are many provincial and local organizations in Canada. BirdLife International is an important global alliance of bird conservation organizations. Many countries and smaller regions (states/provinces) have "rarities committees" to check, accept or reject reports of rare birds made by birders.

Equipment and technology

编辑
 
Birders using a tower hide to gain views over foreground vegetation. Bay of Liminka, south of Oulu, Finland.

Equipment commonly used for birding includes binoculars, a spotting scope with tripod, a smartphone, a notepad, and one or more field guides. Hides (known as blinds in North America) or observation towers are often used to conceal the observers from birds, and/or to improve viewing conditions. Virtually all optics manufacturers offer specific binoculars for birding, and some have even geared their whole brand to birders.

Sound equipment

编辑

Recognition of bird vocalizations is an important part of a birder's toolkit. Sound information can assist in the locating, watching, identification, and sometimes sexing of birds. Recent developments in audio technology have seen recording and reproduction devices shrink in both size and price, making them accessible to a greater portion of the birding community.

The non-linear nature of digital audio technology has also made selecting and accessing the required recordings much more flexible than tape-based models. It is now possible to take a recording of every bird call you are likely to encounter in a given area out into the field stored on a device that will slip into your pocket and to retrieve calls for playback and comparison in any order you choose.

As the technology continues to improve, researchers and hobby birders have started using convolutional neural networks to mine sound recordings to identify and track specific bird calls.[45][46]

Photography

编辑

Photography has always been a part of birding, but in the past the cost of cameras with super-telephoto lenses made this a minority, often semi-professional, interest. The advent of affordable digital cameras, which can be used in conjunction with a spotting scope or binoculars (using the technique of afocal photography, referred to by the neologism "digiscoping" or sometimes digibinning for binoculars), have made this a much more widespread aspect of the hobby.

Videography

编辑

As with the arrival of affordable digital cameras, the development of more compact and affordable digital video cameras has made them more attractive and accessible to the birding community. Cross-over, non-linear digital models now exist that take high-quality stills at acceptable resolutions, as well as being able to record and play audio and video. The ability to capture and reproduce not only the visual characteristics of a bird, but also its patterns of movement and its sound, has wide applications for birders in the field.

Portable media players

编辑

This class of product includes devices that can play (and in some cases record) a range of digital media, typically video, audio and still image files. Many modern digital cameras, mobile phones, and camcorders can be classified as portable media players. With the ability to store and play large quantities of information, pocket-sized devices allow a full birding multimedia library to be taken into the field and mobile Internet access makes obtaining and transmitting information possible in near real time.

Remote birdwatching

编辑

New technologies are allowing birdwatching activities to take place over the Internet, using robotic camera installations and mobile phones set up in remote wildlife areas. Projects such as CONE [1] allow users to observe and photograph birds over the web; similarly, robotic cameras set up in largely inhospitable areas are being used to attempt the first photographs of the rare ivory-billed woodpecker. These systems represent new technologies in the birdwatcher's toolkit.[47]

Communication

编辑

In the early 1950s, the only way of communicating new bird sightings was through the postal system and it was generally too late for the recipients to act on the information. In 1953 James Ferguson-Lees began broadcasting rare bird news on the radio in Eric Simms' Countryside program but this did not catch on. In the 1960s people began using the telephone and some people became hubs for communication. In the 1970s some cafés, such as that in Cley, Norfolk run by Nancy Gull, became centers for meeting and communication. This was replaced by telephone hotline services such as "Birdline" and "Bird Information Service".[48]

With the advent of the World Wide Web, birders have been using the Internet to convey information; this can be via mailing lists, forums, bulletin-boards, web-based databases and other social media.[49][50] While most birding lists are geographic in scope, there are special-interest lists that cater to bird-identification, 'twitchers', seabirds and raptor enthusiasts to name but a few. Messages can range from the serious to trivial, notifying others of rarities, questioning the taxonomy or identification of a species, discussing field guides and other resources, asking for advice and guidance, or organizing groups to help save habitats.

Occasional postings are mentioned in academic journals and therefore can be a valuable resource for professional and amateur birders alike.[51][52] One of the oldest, Birdchat[53] (based in the US), probably has the most subscribers, followed by the English-language fork of Eurobirdnet,[54] Birding-Aus[55] from Australia, SABirdnet[56] from South Africa and Orientalbirding.[57]

Mobile applications

编辑

The increasing availability of mobile devices in the 2010s allowed the smartphone to become a useful tool for birding. Mobile apps can be used as replacements for physical birding field guides, such as the digital version of the Sibley Guide to Birds and the official Audubon Society app.[58] Other apps utilize machine learning to automatically identifying birds from photographs and audio recordings, such as the Cornell Lab of Ornithology's Merlin Bird ID application and iNaturalist.[58][59]

Cornell Lab of Ornithology's eBird database is a popular tool used by birders to document their sightings. In addition to serving as a citizen science project used by ornithologists to document trends in bird populations,[60] it allows birders see recent reports by other birders and search by species and location.[61] Some species, including endangered species and others likely to be disrupted by increased human activity, are designated "sensitive species" by eBird and have locations of sightings hidden from the general public.[62]

Code of conduct

编辑

As the numbers of birdwatchers increases, there is growing concern about the impact of birdwatching on the birds and their habitat. Birdwatching etiquette is evolving in response to this concern.[63] Some examples of birdwatching etiquette include promoting the welfare of birds and their environment, limiting use of photography, pishing and playback devices to mitigate stress caused to birds, maintaining a distance away from nests and nesting colonies, and respecting private property.[64]

The lack of definite evidence, except arguably in the form of photographs, makes birding records difficult to prove but birdwatchers strive to build trust in their identification.[65] One of the few major disputes was the case of the Hastings Rarities.

Socio-psychology

编辑
参见：Biophilia hypothesis

Ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen considers birdwatching to be an expression of the male hunting instinct, while Simon Baron-Cohen links it with a male tendency for "systemizing".[66] There have been suggestions that identification of birds may be a form of gaining status which has been compared with Kula valuables noted in Papua New Guinean cultures.[67]

A study of the motivations for birdwatching in New York concluded that initial motivations were largely similar in males and females, but males who participate actively in birding are more motivated by "sharing knowledge" with others, and active female birders are more motivated by their "intellectual" interest in studying birds, and by the "challenge" of identifying new and rare birds and improving their skills.[68] Another study suggested that males lean towards competitive birding, while females prefer recreational birdwatching.[69] While the representation of women has always been low,[70] it has been pointed out that nearly 90% of all birdwatchers in the United States are white, with only a few African Americans.[71] Other minority groups have formed organizations to support fellow birders, such as the Gay Birders Club[72] and Birding For All, formerly the Disabled Birders Association.[70][73]

The study of birdwatching has been of interest to students of the sociology of science.[74] People who have nature-based experiences report better well-being and lower psychological distress than those who do not, and birdwatching in particular was found to have higher gains in subjective well-being and more reduction in distress than more generic nature exposure, such as walks.[75][76]

Famous birdwatchers

编辑
参见：List of birdwatchers

There are about 10,000 species of bird and only a small number of people have seen more than 7,000. Many birdwatchers have spent their entire lives trying to see all the bird species of the world.[77] The first person who started this is said to be Stuart Keith.[78]

Birders have been known to go to great lengths and some have lost their lives in the process. Phoebe Snetsinger spent her family inheritance travelling to various parts of the world while suffering from a malignant melanoma, surviving an attack and rape in New Guinea before dying in a road accident in Madagascar.[79] She saw as many as 8,400 species. The birdwatcher David Hunt who was leading a bird tour in Corbett National Park was killed by a tiger in February 1985.[80][81] In 1971, Ted Parker (who later died in an air crash in Ecuador) travelled around North America and saw 626 species.[82] This record was beaten by Kenn Kaufman in 1973 who travelled 69,000 miles and saw 671 species and spent less than a thousand dollars.[83]

In 2012, Tom Gullick, an Englishman who lives in Spain, became the first birdwatcher to log over 9,000 species.[84] In 2008, two British birders, Alan Davies and Ruth Miller, gave up their jobs, sold their home and put everything they owned into a year-long global birdwatching adventure about which they a wrote a book called The Biggest Twitch. They logged their 4,341st species on 31 December 2008, in Ecuador.[85] Noah Strycker recorded 6,042 species during 2015, overtaking Davies and Miller.[86] In 2016, Arjan Dwarshuis became the world-record holder for most species seen during the span of one year, logging 6,852 bird species in 40 countries.[87]

In early February of 2024, Peter Kaestner became the first birder to log over 10,000 species, a record surrounded by much controversy as he was initially claimed to be beaten by Jason Mann who later conceded defeated.[88]

Birdwatching literature, field guides and television programs have been popularized by birders such as Pete Dunne and Bill Oddie.

In media

编辑

The 2011 film The Big Year depicted three birders competing in an American Birding Association Area big year, and the 2019 film Birders is a short documentary.

See also

编辑

Similar activities

Institutions:

注释

编辑
  1. ^ 意为“打钩”，即记录在在个人记录上
  2. ^ 十分有限的范围内的清单，如你家后院

参考资料

编辑
  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Dunne, Pete. Pete Dunne on Bird Watching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 2003. ISBN 978-0-395-90686-6. OCLC 50228297. 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Oddie, Bill. Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book. Frome & London: Butler & Tanner Ltd. 1980. ISBN 978-0-413-47820-7. OCLC 8960462. 
  3. ^ Moss 2004:33
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Dooley, Sean. Anoraks to Zitting Cisticola. Allen & Unwin. 2007. ISBN 978-1-74175-272-4. OCLC 174092376. 
  5. ^ Poole, Steven. Why the term 'twitch' ruffles feathers. The Guardian. 19 January 2019. 
  6. ^ Law, John; Lynch, Michael. Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity. Human Studies. 1988, 11 (2/3): 271–303. ISSN 0163-8548. JSTOR 20009028. S2CID 144536028. doi:10.1007/BF00177306. 
  7. ^ Dudley, Steve; Benton, Tim; Fraser, Peter; Ryan, John. Rare Birds Day by Day. T. & A. D. Poyser. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4081-3795-6. 
  8. ^ Moss 2004:10
  9. ^ Moss 2004:72
  10. ^ Moss 2004:88
  11. ^ Barrow, Mark. A Passion for Birds. Princeton University Press. 1998: 156–157. ISBN 978-0-691-04402-6. 
  12. ^ Shearin, Gloria. 2008. Neltje Blanchan. In: Patterson, D., Thompson, R., Bryson, S., et al., Early American Nature Writers. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0313346801. pp.62–69.
  13. ^ Dunlap, Thomas R. 2011. In the Field, Among the Feathered: A History of Birders & Their Guides, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0199734593. p. 47.
  14. ^ Moss 2004:104–106
  15. ^ Macdonald, H. What makes you a scientist is the way you look at things: ornithology and the observer 1930–1955. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences. 2002, 33 (1): 53. doi:10.1016/S1369-8486(01)00034-6. 
  16. ^ Johnson, Kristin. The Ibis: Transformations in a Twentieth Century British Natural History Journal. Journal of the History of Biology. 2004, 37 (3): 515–555. S2CID 83849594. doi:10.1007/s10739-004-1499-3. 
  17. ^ Moss 2004:128
  18. ^ Moss 2004:233–234
  19. ^ Moss 2004:234–235
  20. ^ Moss 2004:250
  21. ^ Moss 2004:252–253
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Aerts, R.; Lerouge, F.; November, E. Birds of forests and open woodlands in the highlands of Dogu'a Tembien. In: Nyssen J., Jacob, M., Frankl, A. (Eds.). Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District. SpringerNature. 2019. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6. 
  23. ^ Gómez de Silva, Héctor; Alvarado Reyes, Ernesto. Breve historia de la observación de aves en México en el siglo XX y principios del siglo XXI (PDF). Huitzil. 2010, 11: 9–20. S2CID 252627895. doi:10.28947/hrmo.2010.11.1.109. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于23 July 2011）. 
  24. ^ Connell, John. Birdwatching, Twitching and Tourism: towards an Australian perspective. Australian Geographer. 2009, 40 (2): 203–217. Bibcode:2009AuGeo..40..203C. ISSN 0004-9182. S2CID 143560339. doi:10.1080/00049180902964942. 
  25. ^ The History of Audubon and Bird Conservation | Audubon. www.audubon.org. [2024-04-02] （英语）. 
  26. ^ Moss 2004:265
  27. ^ Kerlinger, P. Birding economics and birder demographics studies as conservation tools in Proc. Status and Managem. of Neotrop. Migr. Birds. eds. D. Finch and P. Stangel (PDF). Rocky Mntn For. and Range Exper. Station, Fort Collins, CO. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rept. RM-229. 1993: 32–38. 
  28. ^ Cordell, H. Ken; Herbert, Nancy G. The Popularity of Birding is Still Growing (PDF). Birding. 2002: 54–61. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于28 October 2008）. 
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 Pullis La Rouche, G. Birding in the United States: a demographic and economic analysis. Addendum to the 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife-Associated Recreation. Report 2001-1. (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arlington, Virginia. 2003. 
  30. ^ Fågelskådare bidrar med 36 miljarder dollar till USA:s ekonomi. Swedish Ornithologic Society. 2009. （原始内容存档于25 March 2010）. 
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Could a birding boom in the U.S. help conservation take flight?. Travel. 2 September 2021 [29 November 2021]. （原始内容存档于2 September 2021）. 
  32. ^ Gürlük, S.; Rehber, E. A travel cost study to estimate recreational value for a bird refuge at Lake Manyas, Turkey. Journal of Environmental Management. 2008, 88 (4): 1350–1360. PMID 17766033. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.07.017. 
  33. ^ Sekercioglu, Cagan H. Conservation through commodification (PDF). Birding. 2003, 35 (4): 394–402. 
  34. ^ 34.0 34.1 Schwoerer, Tobias; Dawson, Natalie G. Small sight—Big might: Economic impact of bird tourism shows opportunities for rural communities and biodiversity conservation. PLOS ONE. 6 July 2022, 17 (7): e0268594. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1768594S. PMC 9258859  . PMID 35793337. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0268594  . 
  35. ^ Market Analysis of Bird-Based Tourism: A Focus on the U.S. Market to Latin America and the Caribbean Including Fact Sheets on The Bahamas, Belize, Guatemala, Paraguay (PDF). responsibletravel.org. [29 November 2021]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于29 November 2021）. 
  36. ^ Kronenberg, Jakub. Environmental Impacts of the Use of Ecosystem Services: Case Study of Birdwatching. Environmental Management. 1 September 2014, 54 (3): 617–630. Bibcode:2014EnMan..54..617K. PMC 4129236  . PMID 24993794. S2CID 7657835. doi:10.1007/s00267-014-0317-8. 
  37. ^ Sekercioglu, Cagan H. Impacts of birdwatching on human and avian communities (PDF). Environmental Conservation. 2002, 29 (3): 282–289. Bibcode:2002EnvCo..29..282S. S2CID 86375465. doi:10.1017/S0376892902000206. 
  38. ^ Eubanks, T. L. Bare-naked birding (PDF). Birding. 2007 [22 December 2011]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于19 November 2011）. 
  39. ^ Moss, Stephen. Birds and Weather A Birdwatcher's Guide. London: Hamlyn. 1995. ISBN 978-0-600-58679-1. OCLC 33207495. 
  40. ^ Robbins, Jim. Paying Farmers to Welcome Birds. New York Times. 14 April 2014 [5 February 2016]. 
  41. ^ An introduction to birdwatching (PDF). Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. 2003. 
  42. ^ Greenwood, J. J. D. Citizens, science and bird conservation (PDF). Journal of Ornithology. 2007, 148 (1): 77–124. S2CID 21914046. doi:10.1007/s10336-007-0239-9. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于19 July 2011）. 
  43. ^ Sheard, Kenneth. A Twitch in Time Saves Nine: Birdwatching, Sport, and Civilizing Processes. Sociology of Sport Journal. 1999, 16 (3): 181–205. doi:10.1123/ssj.16.3.181. 
  44. ^ Dunne, P. (2007). Big Day Big Stay. Birder's World, 21(5), 18–21.
  45. ^ Artificial intelligence enhances monitoring of threatened marbled murrelet. Oregon State University. 2 May 2024 [15 May 2024] –通过Science Daily. 
  46. ^ Duarte, Adam; Weldy, Matthew J.; et al. Passive acoustic monitoring and convolutional neural networks facilitate high-resolution and broadscale monitoring of a threatened species. Ecological Indicators. May 2024, 162 [15 May 2024]. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.112016  . 
  47. ^ Chambers, Charlotte N. L. "Well its remote, I suppose, innit?" The relational politics of bird-watching through the CCTV lens. Scottish Geographical Journal. 2007, 123 (2): 122–134. Bibcode:2007ScGJ..123..122C. S2CID 128827585. doi:10.1080/14702540701624568. 
  48. ^ Moss 2004:267–275
  49. ^ Montague, Peter; Pellerano, Maria B. Toxicology and environmental digital resources from and for citizen groups. Toxicology. 2001, 157 (1–2): 77–88. PMID 11164976. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(00)00342-5. 
  50. ^ Still, Kaisa; Isomursu, Minna; Vainamo, Soili. Exploring the integration of community communication technologies: case birdwatchers. International Journal of Web Based Communities. 2005, 1 (3): 346–359. doi:10.1504/IJWBC.2005.006932. 
  51. ^ Hailman, J. P. Computer networking in ornithology in Computer Networking and Scholarly Communication in the Twenty-first-Century University (Eds. Teresa M. Harrison, Timothy Stephen). SUNY Press. 1996: 167–175. ISBN 978-0-7914-2853-5. 
  52. ^ Newton, Ian; Kavanagh, Rodney; Olsen, Jerry; Taylor, Iain. Ecology and Conservation of Owls: Proceedings of the Owls 2000, Canberra, Australia. CSIRO Publishing. 2002: 353. ISBN 978-0-643-06794-3. 
  53. ^ BirdChat Guidelines. [6 August 2008]. （原始内容存档于12 May 2008）. 
  54. ^ EBN Info Page. [6 August 2008]. （原始内容存档于20 June 2008）. 
  55. ^ Birding-Au. [26 October 2006]. （原始内容存档于17 September 2006）. 
  56. ^ Sabirdnet Info Page. [6 August 2008]. （原始内容存档于23 April 2008）. 
  57. ^ OBC | club news | email groups. [6 August 2008]. （原始内容存档于4 July 2008）. 
  58. ^ 58.0 58.1 The Best Birding Apps and Field Guides. www.audubon.org. 2015-08-04 [2023-11-03] （英语）. 
  59. ^ Bowman, Dale. App-solutely enhancing outdoors experience: iNaturalist, Seek and Merlin Bird ID apps; plus Stray Cast. Chicago Sun-Times. 2021-07-08 [2023-11-03] （英语）. 
  60. ^ We Helped Scientists Track Birds This Summer. The New York Times. 2023-09-22 [2023-11-03]. 
  61. ^ McKee, Jenny. A Beginner's Guide to Using eBird. www.audubon.org. 2022-10-07 [2023-11-03] （英语）. 
  62. ^ Minor, Nick. eBird Is Now Censoring Sightings for 325 At-Risk Species. www.audubon.org. 2018-03-07 [2023-11-03] （英语）. 
  63. ^ Bumstead, Pat. The Art of Birdwatching. Simply Wild Publications Inc. 2004. ISBN 978-0-9689278-2-3. OCLC 56329274. 
  64. ^ Code of Birding Ethics. American Birding Association. 3 January 2020 [12 December 2022]. 
  65. ^ Donnelly, Peter. Take my word for it: Trust in the context of birding and mountaineering. Qualitative Sociology. 1994, 17 (3): 215–241. S2CID 144678537. doi:10.1007/BF02422253. 
  66. ^ Maddox, Bruno. Blinded by Science: Birding Brains. Discover. 2006, 27 (12): 66–67. 
  67. ^ Liep, John. Airborne kula:The appropriation of birds by Danish ornithologists. Anthropology Today. 2001, 17 (5): 10–15. doi:10.1111/1467-8322.00077. 
  68. ^ Sali, M.; Kuehn, D.; Zhang, L. Motivations for Male and Female Birdwatchers in New York State. Human Dimensions of Wildlife. 2008, 13 (3): 187–200. Bibcode:2008HDW....13..187S. S2CID 143802893. doi:10.1080/10871200801982795. 
  69. ^ C. B., Cooper; Smith, J. A. Gender patterns in bird-related recreation in the USA and UK. Ecology and Society. 2010, 15 (4): 4. doi:10.5751/ES-03603-150404  . 
  70. ^ 70.0 70.1 Moss 2004:316–330
  71. ^ Robinson, J. C. Relative Prevalence of African Americans among Bird Watchers. General Technical Report PSW-GTR-191 (PDF). U.S. Department of Agriculture–Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. Albany, Calif. 2005. 
  72. ^ Home page. Gay Birders' Club. 
  73. ^ About Birding For All. Birding for All. [19 June 2023]. 
  74. ^ Law, J.; Lynch, M. Lynch, M.; Woolgar, S. , 编. Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity in Representation in Scientific Practice. Cambridge: MIT Press. 1990: 267–299. 
  75. ^ Birdwatching can help students improve mental health, reduce distress. North Carolina State University. 3 May 2024 [15 May 2024] –通过Science Daily. 
  76. ^ Peterson, M. Nils; Larson, Lincoln R.; et al. Birdwatching linked to increased psychological well-being on college campuses: A pilot-scale experimental study. Journal of Environmental Psychology. June 2024, 96 [15 May 2024]. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102306. 
  77. ^ Koeppel, Dan. To See Every Bird on Earth. Hudson Street Publisher. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4193-3299-9. OCLC 68757783. 
  78. ^ Moss 2004:261
  79. ^ Snetsinger, Phoebe. Birding on Borrowed Time. American Birding Association. 2003. ISBN 978-1-878788-41-2. 
  80. ^ Breeden, Stanley; Wright, Belinda. Through the Tiger's Eyes: A Chronicle of India's Wildlife. Ten Speed Press. 1997: 173. ISBN 978-0-89815-847-2. 
  81. ^ Hunt, David. Confessions of a Scilly Birdman. Croom Helm. 1985. ISBN 978-0-7099-3724-1. OCLC 12080015. 
  82. ^ Moss 2004:242
  83. ^ Moss 2004:240–241
  84. ^ McCarthy, Michael. World's greatest birdwatcher sets a new record. The Independent. 15 October 2012 [16 October 2012]. 
  85. ^ Davies, Alan; Miller, Ruth. The Biggest Twitch: Around the World in 4,000 Birds. A & C Black. 2010: 298. ISBN 978-1-4081-2387-4. 
  86. ^ Strycker, Noah. Birding without Borders. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2017: 255. ISBN 978-0-544-55814-4. 
  87. ^ Dwarshuis, Arjan. The (Big) Year That Flew By. Chelsea Green Publishing. 2023: 228. ISBN 978-1-64502-191-9. 
  88. ^ https://explorersweb.com/birding-controversy-two-birders-claim-10000-species-record-on-the-same-day/

Bibliography

编辑
编辑
 
查看维基词典中的词条「birdwatching」。
 
维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源：Karoke Cirno/sandbox 2
 
維基導遊上的相關旅行指南：birdwatching



{{Birds}} {{Birds in culture}} [[Category:Birdwatching| ]] [[Category:Outdoor recreation]] [[Category:Observation hobbies]]

[2]

检索自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Karoke_Cirno/sandbox_2&oldid=83828614”