用戶:George Leung/沙盒

拖網漁船

拖網漁船 單拖漁船，簡稱單拖，係一種拖網作業嘅漁船，由一部船船尾帶住拖網，邊行邊捉魚。

由於拖網會破壞海洋生態，近年唔少環保組織反對爾種船繼續出海。

睇埋

• 雙拖漁船

乾肉餅

Traditional method of drying meat for pemmican demonstrated at Calgary Stampede

Chokeberries (Aronia prunifolia), sometimes added to pemmican

乾肉餅 (en: Pemmican) 是一種用肉乾和fatconcentrated mixture, used as a nutritious food. The word comes from the Cree word pimîhkân, which itself is derived from the word pimî, "fat, grease". It was invented by the native peoples of North America. It was widely adopted as a high-energy food by Europeans involved in the fur trade and later by Arctic and Antarctic explorers, such as Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, Fridtjof Nansen, Robert Falcon Scott and Roald Amundsen.

The specific ingredients used were usually whatever was available; the meat was often bison, deer, elk, or moose. Fruits such as cranberries and saskatoon berries were sometimes added. Blueberries, Cherries, chokeberries, and currants were also used, but almost exclusively in ceremonial and wedding pemmican.

Traditional preparation

Ball of pemmican

Traditionally, pemmican was prepared from the lean meat of large game such as buffalo, elk, deer, or moose. The meat was cut in thin slices and dried, either over a slow fire or in the hot sun, until it was hard and brittle. (About five pounds of meat are required to make one pound of dried meat suitable for pemmican.) Then it was pounded into very small pieces, almost powder-like in consistency, using stones. The pounded meat was mixed with melted fat in an approximate 1:1 ratio. In some cases, dried fruits, such as blueberries, choke cherries, cranberries, or saskatoon berries, were pounded into powder and then added to the meat/fat mixture. The resulting mixture was then packed into rawhide bags for storage.

A bag of buffalo pemmican weighing about 90磅（41公斤） was called a taureau (French for "bull") by the Métis of Red River. These bags of taureaux (lit. "bulls"), when mixed with fat from the udder, were known as taureaux fins, when mixed with bone marrow, as taureaux grand, and when mixed with berries, as taureaux à grains. It generally took the meat of one buffalo to fill a taureau.

Serving

In his notes of 1874, North-West Mounted Police Sergent-Major Sam Steele records three ways of serving pemmican: raw; boiled in a stew called "rubaboo"; or fried, known in the West as a "rechaud" ^{spelled richeau, rasho, richot, rouchou, rousseau, rusho(o), rowshow, etc. see, http://dchp.ca/DCHP-1/entries/view/richeau}

"The pemmican was cooked in two ways in the west; one a stew of pemmican, water, flour and, if they could be secured, wild onions or preserved potatoes. This was called "rubaboo"; the other was called by the plains hunters a "rechaud". It was cooked in a frying pan with onions and potatoes or alone. Some persons ate pemmican raw, but I must say I never had a taste for it that way." (Sam Steele 1874)

History

參見：Métis buffalo hunt § Pemmican trade

The voyageurs of the Canadian fur trade had no time to live off the land during the short season when the lakes and rivers were free of ice. They had to carry their food with them if the distance traveled was too great to be resupplied along the way. A north canoe (canot du nord) with six men and 25 standard 90磅（41公斤） packs required about four packs of food per 500英里（800公里）. Montreal-based canoemen could be supplied by sea or with locally grown food. Their main food was dried peas or beans, sea biscuit and salt pork. (Western canoemen called their Montreal-based fellows mangeurs de lard or "pork-eaters".) In the Great Lakes some maize and wild rice could be obtained locally. By the time trade reached the Winnipeg area the pemmican trade was developed.

Metis drying buffalo meat at St. François Xavier, Manitoba, Canada

Métis would go southwest onto the prairie in Red River carts, slaughter buffalo, convert it into pemmican and carry it north to trade at the North West Company posts. For these people on the edge of the prairie the pemmican trade was as important a source of trade goods as was the beaver trade for the Indians further north. This trade was a major factor in the emergence of a distinct Métis society. Packs of pemmican would be shipped north and stored at the major fur posts: Fort Alexander, Cumberland House, Île-à-la-Crosse, Fort Garry, Norway House, and Edmonton House. So important was pemmican that, in 1814, governor Miles Macdonell started the Pemmican War with the Métis when he passed the short-lived Pemmican Proclamation, which forbade the export of pemmican from the Red River Colony.

Alexander Mackenzie relied on pemmican on his 1793 expedition across Canada to the Pacific.

North Pole explorer Robert Peary used pemmican on all three of his expeditions, from 1886 to 1909, for both his men and his dogs. In his 1917 book Secrets of Polar Travel, he devoted several pages to the food, stating, "Too much cannot be said of the importance of pemmican to a polar expedition. It is an absolute sine qua non. Without it a sledge-party cannot compact its supplies within a limit of weight to make a serious polar journey successful."

British polar expeditions fed a type of pemmican to their dogs as "sledging rations". Called "Bovril pemmican" or simply "dog pemmican", it was a beef product consisting of 2/3 protein and 1/3 fat, without carbohydrate. It was later ascertained that although the dogs survived on it, this was not a nutritious and healthy diet for them, being too high in protein. Members of Ernest Shackleton's 1914–1916 expedition to the Antarctic resorted to eating dog pemmican when they were stranded on ice for the winter.

During the Second Boer War (1899–1902), British troops were given an iron ration made of four ounces of pemmican and four ounces of chocolate and sugar. The pemmican would keep in perfect condition for decades. It was considered much superior to biltong, a form of cured game meats commonly used in Africa. This iron ration was prepared in two small tins (soldered together) which were fastened inside the soldiers' belts. It was the last ration used and it was used only as a last resort---when ordered by the commanding officer. A man could march on this for 36 hours before he began to drop from hunger.

American adventurer Frederick Russell Burnham, while serving as Chief of Scouts for the British Army in South Africa, required pemmican to be carried by every scout.

Modern pemmican producers

• US Wellness Meats in Missouri currently sells pemmican in bar and bulk form.

Modern protein bars, "pemmican-inspired"

• Tanka Bar, manufactured in Kyle, South Dakota, by Native American Natural Foods, an Oglala Lakota business, are made from a combination of buffalo meat and cranberries (and sugar) with an herbal preservative.
• EPIC Bars, manufactured in Austin, Texas, are energy bar flavors made from dried meat, nuts, and dried fruit.
• Bricks Meals & Snacks, a Brooklyn, New York business, manufactures pemmican-inspired bars out of grass-fed beef, bacon and turkey, dried fruits, vegetables, and seeds.

Modern food brands named "pemmican"

• Pemmican beef jerky is based in Taylor, Michigan, and owned by Marfood USA, Inc.
• High-energy food bars are sold under the brand names MealPack and Bear Valley Pemmican by Intermountain Trading Co. Ltd. in Albany, California. These bars are baked from malted corn and barley (with no meat). Bear Valley Foods was threatened with a lawsuit over the use of the Pemmican name, by ConAgra; however, they were ultimately allowed to keep the name.

客觀主義

Intellectual impact

Academic philosophers have generally dismissed Objectivism since Rand first presented it. Objectivism has been called "fiercely anti-academic" because of Rand's criticism of contemporary intellectuals. David Sidorsky, a professor of moral and political philosophy at Columbia University, says Rand's work is "outside the mainstream" and is more of an ideological movement than a well-grounded philosophy. British philosopher Ted Honderich notes that he deliberately excluded an article on Rand from The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Rand is, however, mentioned in the article on popular philosophy by Anthony Quinton. Rand is the subject of entries in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Routledge Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Political Thinkers, and The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy. A listing of Rand also appears in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, featuring the assessment "The influence of Rand's ideas was strongest among college students in the USA but attracted little attention from academic philosophers. Her outspoken defense of capitalism in works like Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (1967), and her characterization of her position as a defence of the 'virtue of selfishness' in her essay collection of the same title published in 1964, also brought notoriety, but kept her out of the intellectual mainstream."

In recent decades Rand's works are more likely to be encountered in the classroom. The Ayn Rand Society, dedicated to fostering the scholarly study of Objectivism, is affiliated with the American Philosophical Association's Eastern Division. Aristotle scholar and Objectivist Allan Gotthelf, chairman of the Society, and his colleagues have argued for more academic study of Objectivism, viewing the philosophy as a unique and intellectually interesting defense of classical liberalism that is worth debating. In 1999 a refereed Journal of Ayn Rand Studies began. In 2006 the University of Pittsburgh held a conference focusing on Objectivism. Programs and fellowships for the study of Objectivism have been supported at the University of Pittsburgh, University of Texas at Austin and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

According to one Rand biographer, most people first read Rand's works in their "formative years." Rand's former protégé Nathaniel Branden referred to Rand's "especially powerful appeal to the young," while Onkar Ghate of the Ayn Rand Institute said Rand "appeals to the idealism of youth." This appeal has alarmed a number of critics of the philosophy. Many of these young people later abandon their positive view of Rand and are often said to have "outgrown" her ideas. Supporters of Rand's work recognize the phenomenon, but attribute it to the loss of youthful idealism and inability to resist social pressures for intellectual conformity. In contrast, Jennifer Burns says some critics "dismiss Rand as a shallow thinker appealing only to adolescents," although she thinks the critics "miss her significance" as a "gateway drug" to right-wing politics.

詩學

《詩學》(希臘語：Περὶ ποιητικῆς, 拉丁語：De Poetica; c. 335 BCE)，古希臘哲學家亞里士多德的著作，也名《論詩》。《詩學》是西方文明第一部系統的美學和藝術理論作品，為西方文論奠定了基礎。

「詩」的英文字是"poetry"，是來自古希臘文的"ποιεω" (poieo)，意思是「我創造」；所以《詩學》說的「詩」是所有古希臘人的文字藝術。《詩學》主要談及悲劇、喜劇、和史詩。現在衹有第一卷(討論悲劇和史詩）流傳下來；討論喜劇的第二卷不幸地失傳。學者認爲 Tractatus coislinianus是詩學第二卷的概要。 現存的第一部有26章，主要考究悲劇和史詩。 有六分說、五分說、三分說3個分法。

亞里士多德考究藝術後，對藝術作出以下的的 "基本原則"：

1. 藝術的本質是「模仿」，即反映現實。
2. 藝術的類型決定現實是如何在詩中反映.

《詩學》有很久的時間失傳；在中世紀和文藝復興時代，學者衹有一從伊本·魯世德的阿拉伯本翻譯的拉丁本。 雖然亞里士多德的「詩學」在西方文學研究的重要性是舉世公認的，每一個細節都引起了不同學者的意見.

不同詩的類型

根據亞里士多德的考究，悲劇、喜劇、薩堤爾劇、抒情詩和史詩均是反映現實，但因其三點分爲不同的類型：

• 結構 (matter)

對亞里士多德來說, 用詞，節奏（規律性的重複）、韻律（節奏的變化），和聲，和旋律是詩的結構元素。史詩衹用用詞和節奏, 但抒情詩加上韻律和旋律，而悲劇則加用一隊合唱團，包含所有五個元素。

• 角色 (subjects)

亞里士多德用詩中角色的人格來區分悲劇和喜劇. 悲劇中的角色是嚴肅、重要、和有德行的，而喜劇的角色是缺德,有缺點和怪癖的。 在這裏，亞里士多德提出「角色三分法」（tripartite division of characters），把角色分爲比觀眾更有德(βελτίονας)、比觀眾更缺德(χείρονας)、和比觀眾的德行一樣的(τοιούτους)。

• 敘述方法 （method）

對亞里士多德來說，敘述是「模仿」角色的方法，即反映、描寫角色。其一的敘述方法使用第一或第三敘述者。其二則是偶爾用敘述，大部分時間是角色發言、對話，如荷馬的史詩。其三的方法是只用演員/角色發言、對話，最多是用代表群眾/僕人們的合唱團來敘述和評論。悲劇、喜劇、和薩堤爾劇是用第三敘述方法.

分說

《詩學》有六分說、五分說、三分說3個分法。五分說把《詩學》分爲：

1. 以悲劇、喜劇、薩堤爾劇、抒情詩和史詩來初步論述反映現實的詩
2. 悲劇的定義，分析，和編寫規則
3. 史詩的定義，分析，和編寫規則
4. 應對悲劇和史詩的批判
5. 比較悲劇和史詩，和講解為什麼悲劇優於史詩

內容

不同詩的類型

根據亞里士多德的考究，悲劇、喜劇、薩堤爾劇、抒情詩和史詩均是反映現實，但因其三點分爲不同的類型：

• 結構 (matter)

對亞里士多德來說, 用詞，節奏（規律性的重複）、韻律（節奏的變化），和聲，和旋律是詩的結構元素。史詩衹用用詞和節奏, 但抒情詩加上韻律和旋律，而悲劇則加用一隊合唱團，包含所有五個元素。

• 角色 (subjects)

亞里士多德用詩中角色的人格來區分悲劇和喜劇. 悲劇中的角色是嚴肅、重要、和有德行的，而喜劇的角色是缺德,有缺點和怪癖的。 Aristotle introduces here the influential tripartite division of characters in superior (βελτίονας) to the audience, inferior (χείρονας), or at the same level (τοιούτους).

• 敘述方法 （method）

對亞里士多德來說，敘述是「模仿」角色的方法，即反映、描寫角色。其一的敘述方法使用第一或第三敘述者。其二則是偶爾用敘述，大部分時間是角色發言、對話，如荷馬的史詩。其三的方法是只用演員/角色發言、對話，最多是用代表群眾/僕人們的合唱團來敘述和評論。悲劇、喜劇、和薩堤爾劇是用第三敘述方法.

大體考究過「詩」後, 亞里士多德對悲劇的認識是:

悲劇是對於一個嚴肅、完整、有一定長度的行動的模仿。它的用詞應該是"美化的講話"－就是有節奏、韻律、和旋律的講話，也就是歌曲。而每一元素該分開使用，有一部分衹用講話，而另一部分衹用歌曲。而這些行動的模仿該用演戲而不是用講述，製造出可憐和畏懼來淨化人們的感情（Catharsis κάθαρσις katharsis)。(1449b25-30).

亞里士多德認為悲劇比史詩是更優越的藝術，因爲悲劇是包含史詩的元數，也可以用史詩的長短格六步韻律，和是嚴肅的行動的模仿。 表演出的現實模仿，不管是讀出來或是演出來，是可以感動情感，製造出可憐和畏懼來淨化人們的感情，對社會道德起着良好的作用。通過思慮悲劇的可憐和畏懼，觀眾也能從這兩個情感得到愉悅的美學。最後，悲劇是基於因果、世間的基本秩序。 悲劇比史詩精簡，更多統一性，所以更容易娛樂別人

/// ABOVE DONE!

悲劇本身有６個元素：亞里士多德是這樣跟這些元素的重要性，從最重要到最不重要來排名：

• 情節 (mythos)

情節指的是 "事件結構"。劇情的關鍵元素包括逆轉、原因的揭示、和因那個原因而苦難的後果。最好的劇情該是"複雜"的,也就是涉及到時運的變化。 It should imitate actions arousing fear and pity. Thus it should proceed from good fortune to bad and involve a high degree of suffering for the protagonist, usually involving physical harm or death.

情節應該是理性、遵循邏輯，有因才有果。 They will be more satisfying to the audience if they come about by surprise or seeming coincidence and are only afterward seen as plausible, even necessary.

When a character is unfortunate by reversal(s) of fortune (peripeteia known today in pop culture as a plot twist), at first he suffers (pathos) and then he can realize (anagnorisis) the cause of his misery or a way to be released from the misery.

• 角色 (ethos)

角色的墮落應該是由於他的一時錯誤 (hamartia)，不該是必然會發生的事。這是因爲一時的錯誤才能感動觀眾的。主角的錯誤可以是知情下犯，或不知情下犯。角色們是情節的支柱，因爲他們的動機會做出因果效應，製造出感人的情感。

• • 主角應該是：

• 好人—Aristotle explains that audiences do not like, for example, villains "making fortune from misery" in the end. It might happen though, and might make the play interesting. Nevertheless, the moral is at stake here and morals are important to make people happy (people can, for example, see tragedy because they want to release their anger)
• appropriate—if a character is supposed to be wise, it is unlikely he is young (supposing wisdom is gained with age)
• 有連貫性—if a person is a soldier, he is unlikely to be scared of blood (if this soldier is scared of blood it must be explained and play some role in the story to avoid confusing the audience); it is also "good" if a character doesn't change opinion "that much" if the play is not "driven" by who characters are, but by what they do (audience is confused in case of unexpected shifts in behaviour [and its reasons and morals] of characters)
• "consistently inconsistent"—if a character always behaves foolishly it is strange if he suddenly becomes smart. In this case it would be good to explain such change, otherwise the audience may be confused. If character changes opinion a lot it should be clear he is a character who has this trait, not a real life person - this is also to avoid confusion

• 思想 (dianoia)

角色的思想決定他的行動，他的發言；他的思想也說明他的人格和故事的背景。

• 用字 (lexis)

角色如何說每一字、每一句；該反映角色的個性、人格、道德等。

• 旋律 (melos)

合唱團也應被視為演員之一，是悲劇的主要戲分之一；該對悲劇一致作出貢獻和該分享其演出，是愉悅的美學之一.

• 戲劇奇觀 (opsis)

戲劇奇觀是指影響視覺官感的道具，包括佈景,戲服，和道具。亞里士多德認為戲劇奇觀是最沒有藝術成分，因爲戲劇奇觀並不是劇作家的成果。他用的例子是：如果戲劇有美麗的戲服，但演戲、故事都很差，這意味着腳本有問題。 儘管用奇觀可以使戲劇收到很好的評論，這並不是好的。 Spectacle is like a suspenseful horror film.

He offers the earliest-surviving explanation for the origins of tragedy and comedy:

Anyway, arising from an improvisatory beginning (both tragedy and comedy—tragedy from the leaders of the dithyramb, and comedy from the leaders of the phallic processions which even now continue as a custom in many of our cities) [...] (1449a10-13)

亞里士多德說：「悲劇比歷史更優越，悲劇能製造出可憐和恐懼來淨化人們的感情，對社會道德起着良好的作用」。

Rules for the construction of an epic

Tragic pleasure, or catharsis experienced by fear and pity should be produced in the spectator. The characters must be four things: good, appropriate, realistic, and consistent. Discovery must occur within the plot. It is important for the poet to visualize all of the scenes when creating the plot. The poet should incorporate complication and dénouement within the story, as well as combine all of the elements of tragedy. The poet must express thought through the characters' words and actions, while paying close attention to diction and how a character's spoken words express a specific idea. Aristotle believed that all of these different elements had to be present in order for the poetry to be well-done.

Influence

Arabic translation of the Poetics by Abū Bishr Mattā.

The Poetics and Rhetoric have often been treated as sister works, separate from the rest of the Aristotelian canon. This is probably because in Aristotle's time rhetoric and poetics were classified as sort of siblings, two different aspects of performance. Because of rhetoric's direct importance for law and politics, it evolved to become, to a large degree, distinct from poetics, in spite of both themes being classified under aesthetics in the Aristotelian system. In this sense, rhetoric and poetics are two sides of the same thing—the aesthetic dimension.

The Arabic version of Aristotle’s Poetics that influenced the Middle Ages was translated from a Greek manuscript dated to sometime prior to the year 700. This manuscript was translated from Greek to Syriac and is independent of the currently-accepted 11th-century source designated Paris 1741. The Syriac language source used for the Arabic translations departed widely in vocabulary from the original Poetics and it initiated a misinterpretation of Aristotelian thought that continued through the Middle Ages. Paris 1741 today can be found on line at the Bibliothèque nationale de France (National Library of France).

Arabic scholars who published significant commentaries on Aristotle’s Poetics included Avicenna, Al-Farabi and Averroes. Many of these interpretations sought to use Aristotelian theory to impose morality on the Arabic poetic tradition. In particular, Averroes added a moral dimension to the Poetics by interpreting tragedy as the art of praise and comedy as the art of blame. Averroes' interpretation of the Poetics was accepted by the West, where it reflected the "prevailing notions of poetry" into the 16th century.

Core terms

• Mimesis or "imitation", "representation"
• Catharsis or, variously, "purgation", "purification", "clarification"
• Peripeteia or "reversal"
• Anagnorisis or "recognition", "identification"
• Hamartia or "miscalculation" (understood in Romanticism as "tragic flaw")
• Mythos or "plot"
• Ethos or "character"
• Dianoia or "thought", "theme"
• Lexis or "diction", "speech"
• Melos, or "melody"
• Opsis or "spectacle"

Cultural references

The Poetics—both the extant first book and the lost second book—figure prominently in Umberto Eco's novel The Name of the Rose.

譯著

《詩學》在中文譯著里有許多版本，簡體中文的主要譯者有：陳中梅、郝久新、羅念生。

See also

三一律

Sources

Editions – commentaries – translations

• Aristotle’s Treatise On Poetry, transl. with notes by Th. Twining, I-II, London ²1812
• Aristotelis De arte poetica liber, tertiis curis recognovit et adnotatione critica auxit I. Vahlen, Lipsiae ³1885
• Aristotle on the Art of Poetry. A revised Text with Critical Introduction, Translation and Commentary by I. Bywater, Oxford 1909
• Aristoteles: Περὶ ποιητικῆς, mit Einleitung, Text und adnotatio critica, exegetischem Kommentar [...] von A. Gudeman, Berlin/Leipzig 1934
• Ἀριστοτέλους Περὶ ποιητικῆς, μετάφρασις ὑπὸ Σ. Μενάρδου, Εἰσαγωγή, κείμενον καὶ ἑρμηνεία ὑπὸ Ἰ. Συκουτρῆ, (Ἀκαδ. Ἀθηνῶν, Ἑλληνική Βιβλιοθήκη 2) Ἀθῆναι 1937
• Aristotele: Poetica, introduzione, testo e commento di A. Rostagni, Torino ₂1945
• Aristotle’s Poetics: The Argument, by G. F. Else, Harvard 1957
• Aristotelis De arte poetica liber, recognovit brevique adnotatione critica instruxit R. Kassel, Oxonii 1965
• Aristotle: Poetics, Introduction, Commentary and Appendixes by D. W. Lucas, Oxford 1968
• Aristotle: Poetics, with Tractatus Coislinianus, reconstruction of Poetics II, and the Fragments of the On the Poets, transl. by R. Janko, Indianapolis/Cambridge 1987
• Aristotle: Poetics, edited and translated by St. Halliwell, (Loeb Classical Library), Harvard 1995
• Aristotle: Poetics, translated with an introduction and notes by M. Heath, (Penguin) London 1996
• Aristoteles: Poetik, (Werke in deutscher Übersetzung 5) übers. von A. Schmitt, Darmstadt 2008
• Aristotle: Poetics, editio maior of the Greek text with historical introductions and philological commentaries by L. Tarán and D. Goutas, (Mnemosyne Supplements 338) Leiden/Boston 2012

Further reading

• Belfiore, Elizabeth, S., Tragic Pleasures: Aristotle on Plot and Emotion. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP (1992). ISBN 0-691-06899-2
• Bremer, J.M., Hamartia: Tragic Error in the Poetics of Aristotle and the Greek Tragedy, Amsterdam 1969
• Butcher, Samuel H., Aristotle’s Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, New York ⁴1911
• Carroll, M., Aristotle’s Poetics, c. xxv, Ιn the Light of the Homeric Scholia, Baltimore 1895
• Cave, Terence, Recognitions. A Study in Poetics, Oxford 1988
• Carlson, Marvin, Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present. Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell UP (1993). ISBN 978-0-8014-8154-3.
• Dukore, Bernard F., Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle (1974). ISBN 0-03-091152-4
• Downing, E., 「oἷον ψυχή: Αn Εssay on Aristotle’s muthos」, Classical Antiquity 3 (1984) 164-78
• Else, Gerald F., Plato and Aristotle on Poetry, Chapel Hill/London 1986
• Heath, Malcolm, "Aristotelian Comedy", Classical Quarterly 39 (1989) 344-54
• Heath, Malcolm, "The Universality of Poetry in Aristotle’s Poetics", Classical Quarterly 41 (1999) 389-402
• Heath, Malcolm, "Cognition in Aristotle’s Poetics", Mnemosyne 62 (2009) 51-75
• Halliwell, Stephen, Aristotle’s Poetics, Chapel Hill 1986.
• Halliwell, Stephen, The Aesthetics of Mimesis. Ancient Texts and Modern Problems, Princeton/Oxford 2002.
• Hardison, O. B., Jr., "Averroes", in Medieval Literary Criticism: Translations and Interpretations. New York: Ungar (1987), 81-88.
• Hiltunen, Ari, Aristotle in Hollywood. Intellect (2001). ISBN 1-84150-060-7.
• Ηöffe, O. (ed.), Aristoteles: Poetik, (Klassiker auslegen, Band 38) Berlin 2009
• Janko, R., Aristotle on Comedy, London 1984
• Jones, John, On Aristotle and Greek Tragedy, London 1971
• Lanza, D. (ed.), La poetica di Aristotele e la sua storia, Pisa 2002
• Leonhardt, J., Phalloslied und Dithyrambos. Aristoteles über den Ursprung des griechischen Dramas. Heidelberg 1991
• Lienhard, K., Entstehung und Geschichte von Aristoteles 『Poetik』, Zürich 1950
• Lord, C., 「Aristotle’s History of Poetry」, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 104 (1974) 195-228
• Lucas, F. L., Tragedy: Serious Drama in Relation to Aristotle's 「Poetics」. London: Hogarth (1957). New York: Collier. ISBN 0-389-20141-3. London: Chatto. ISBN 0-7011-1635-8
• Luserke, M. (ed.), Die aristotelische Katharsis. Dokumente ihrer Deutung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, Hildesheim/Zürich/N. York 1991
• Morpurgo- Tagliabue, G., Linguistica e stilistica di Aristotele, Rome 1967
• Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (ed.), Essays on Aristotle’s Poetics, Princeton 1992
• Schütrumpf, E., 「Traditional Elements in the Concept of Hamartia in Aristotle’s Poetics」, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 92 (1989) 137-56
• Sen, R. K., Mimesis, Calcutta: Syamaprasad College, 2001
• Sen, R. K., Aesthetic Enjoyment: Its Background in Philosophy and Medicine, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1966
• Sifakis, Gr. M., Aristotle on the Function of Tragic Poetry, Heraklion 2001. ISBN 960-524-132-3
• Söffing, W., Deskriptive und normative Bestimmungen in der Poetik des Aristoteles, Amsterdam 1981
• Sörbom, G., Mimesis and Art, Uppsala 1966
• Solmsen, F., "The Origins and Methods of Aristotle’s Poetics", Classical Quarterly 29 (1935) 192-201
• Tsitsiridis, S., "Mimesis and Understanding. An Interpretation of Aristotle’s Poetics 4.1448^b4-19", Classical Quarterly 55 (2005) 435-46
• Vahlen, Johannes, Beiträge zu Aristoteles』 Poetik, Leipzig/Berlin 1914
• Vöhler, M. – Seidensticker B. (edd.), Katharsiskonzeptionen vor Aristoteles: zum kulturellen Hintergrund des Tragödiensatzes, Berlin 2007

External links

• librivox.org audio recording
• Project Gutenberg - Poetics (Aristotle)
• Aristotle's Poetics: Perseus Digital Library edition.
• Greek text from Hodoi elektronikai
• Critical edition (Oxford Classical Texts) by Ingram Bywater
• Seven parallel translations of Poetics: Russian, English, French
• Aristotle: Poetics entry by Joe Sachs in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Notes of Friedrich Sylburg (1536-1596) in a critical edition (parallel Greek and Latin) available at Google Books
• Analysis and discussion in the BBC's In Our Time series on Radio 4.