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用戶:Min968/Hongwu Emperor

Hongwu Emperor
洪武帝
A Seated Portrait of Ming Emperor Taizu, 約1377[1] by an unknown artist from the Ming dynasty. Now located in the National Palace Museum, Taipei
Emperor of the Ming dynasty
統治23 January 1368[a] – 24 June 1398
Enthronement23 January 1368
繼任Jianwen Emperor
Emperor of China
統治1368–1398
前任Toghon Temür (Yuan dynasty)
繼任Jianwen Emperor
出生Zhu Chongba (朱重八)
21 October 1328
Hao Prefecture, Henan Jiangbei (present-day Fengyang County, Anhui)[2][3][4]
逝世1398年6月24日(1398歲—06—24)（69歲）
Ming Palace, Zhili (present-day Nanjing)
安葬30 June 1398
Xiao Mausoleum, Nanjing
ConsortEmpress Xiaocigao
（1352年結婚—1382年結束）
子嗣
全名
  • Zhu Xingzong (朱興宗)
  • Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋, later)
年號
  • Wu (吳): 31 January 1367 – 23 January 1368
  • Hongwu (洪武): 23 January 1368 – 5 February 1399 (restored, 18 July 1402 – 22 January 1403)[b]
諡號
  • Emperor Qinming Qiyun Junde Chenggong Tongtian Daxiao Gao[c] (欽明啟運俊德成功統天大孝高皇帝)
  • Emperor Shengshen Wenwu Qinming Qiyun Junde Chenggong Tongtian Daxiao Gao[d] (聖神文武欽明啟運俊德成功統天大孝高皇帝)
  • Emperor Kaitian Xingdao Zhaoji Liji Dasheng Zhishen Renwen Yiwu Junde Chenggong Gao[e] (開天行道肇紀立極大聖至神仁文義武俊德成功高皇帝)
廟號
Taizu (太祖)
王朝Zhu
朝代Ming
父親Zhu Shizhen
母親Empress Chun
宗教信仰Buddhism
簽名
Hongwu Emperor
漢語洪武帝

The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming (Template:Zhi), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (Template:Zhi), courtesy name Guorui (Template:Zhi), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1368 to 1398.

In the mid-14th century, China was plagued by epidemics, famines, and peasant uprisings during the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. Zhu Yuanzhang, who lost his parents during this tumultuous time, was forced to survive by begging as an itinerant monk. This difficult upbringing had a profound impact on the future emperor's life. He developed a deep understanding of the struggles faced by ordinary people, while harboring disdain for scholars who only gained knowledge from books.[5]

In 1352, he joined one of the rebel divisions. He quickly distinguished himself among the rebels and rose to lead his own army. In 1356, he conquered Nanjing and established it as his capital. He formed his own government, consisting of both generals and Confucian scholars, rejecting Mongol rule over China. He adopted the concept of country administration from them and implemented it in the territory he controlled, eventually expanding it to the entire country. He gradually defeated rival rebel leaders, with the decisive moment being his victory over Chen Youliang in the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363. In 1364, he declared himself King of Wu.[f] In 1367, however, he still acknowledged his formal subordination to the main Red Turban leader, Han Lin'er, who claimed to be the successor of the Song dynasty.

In early 1368, after successfully dominating southern and central China, he chose to rename his state. He decided on the name Da Ming, which translates to 'Great Radiance,' for his empire. Additionally, he designated "Hongwu", meaning 'Vastly Martial,' as the name of the era and the motto of his reign. In the following four-year war, he drove out the Mongol armies loyal to the Yuan dynasty and unified the country. However, his attempt to conquer Mongolia ended in failure.

During the thirty-year reign of the Hongwu Emperor, Ming China experienced significant growth and recovered from the effects of prolonged wars. The emperor had a strong understanding of the structure of society and believed in implementing reforms to improve institutions. This approach differed from the Confucian belief that the ruler's moral example was the most important factor.[6] The Hongwu Emperor also prioritized the safety of his people and the loyalty of his subordinates, demonstrating pragmatism and caution in military affairs. He maintained a disciplined army and made efforts to minimize the impact of war on civilians.[7]

Although the peak of his political system crumbled in a civil war shortly after his death, other results of the Hongwu Reforms, such as local and regional institutions for Ming state administration and self-government, as well as the financial and examination systems, proved to be resilient.[6] The census, land registration and tax system, and the Weisuo military system all endured until the end of the dynasty.[6] His descendants continued to rule over all of China until 1644, and the southern region for an additional seventeen years.

Youth

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Zhu Yuanzhang was born in 1328 in Zhongli (Template:Zhi) village, located in Haozhou (present-day Fengyang, Anhui). He was the youngest of four sons in a poor peasant family.[8][9] He was given the name Zhu Chongba (Template:Zhi) at birth,[10] but later used the name Zhu Xingzong (Template:Zhi) in adulthood.[11] After joining the rebels, he went by the name Zhu Yuanzhang. His father, Zhu Wusi, lived in Nanjing but fled to the countryside to avoid tax collectors. His paternal grandfather was a gold miner, and his maternal grandfather was a fortune-teller and seer. In 1344, during a plague epidemic, Zhu Yuanzhang's parents and two brothers died. He managed to survive by entering a local Buddhist monastery, which was later closed due to a lack of funds.[12]

For the next three years, Zhu wandered as a mendicant monk, becoming familiar with the landscape and people of eastern Henan and northern Anhui.[13] He then returned to the monastery in 1348 and stayed for four years, during which he learned to read, write, and study the basics of Buddhism.[14] In 1352, when the Mongol army burned down the monks' dwellings during the Red Turban Rebellion, Zhu joined one of the rebel divisions.[15]

As rebel

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The harsh taxation policies, famine, and catastrophic flooding in the Yellow River basin, caused by inadequate flood control measures, led to widespread opposition to the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty.[16] This discontent was further fueled by the presence of Taoist and Buddhist secret societies and sects, with the most prominent being the White Lotus society.[17] In 1351, a rebellion known as the Red Turban Rebellion erupted and quickly spread throughout northern China.[16]

Despite the initial disorganization of the Mongol troops, they were able to launch a counteroffensive and advance along the Grand Canal.[18] In October 1352, the Mongols captured Xuzhou, causing the rebel commanders Peng Da and Zhao Yunyong to flee south to Haozhou.[18]

In Haozhou, the Yuan dynasty's power fell in the spring of 1352. Guo Zixing, Sun Deyai, and three other leaders, with the support of the local elite, organized the army and took control in order to establish order in the city and its surrounding areas.[18] The arrival of Peng and Zhao was seen as a clear connection to the rebels in the eyes of the Yuan dynasty. Guo submitted to Peng, while his four colleagues submitted to Zhao.[18]

On 15 April 1352, Zhu Yuanzhang arrived in the city.[18] Despite starting as a rank-and-file fighter, his exceptional leadership, decisiveness, warrior skills, and intelligence quickly gained him significant authority.[19] Not only was Zhu known for his intelligence, but also for his unattractive appearance.[5] He swiftly recruited 24 companions, who would eventually become generals in the Ming army, from his acquaintances who had already joined the rebels, and became their leader.[20] Thanks to his abilities, he rose to prominence quickly, leading a 700-man squad by the spring of 1353 and becoming Guo's most trusted subordinate.[18] Skilled in both military tactics and political maneuvering, he even married Guo's adopted daughter, surnamed Ma. A strong relationship developed between Lady Ma and Zhu, which would later give her great influence at court as empress.[21] Unlike other leaders of his time, Zhu had a small number of relatives who were appointed to important positions. In the unstable political climate, family ties were crucial for ensuring loyalty and reliability.[18]

The rivalry between Peng and Zhao escalated into a full-blown conflict. Guo was initially captured, but was later freed by his sons and Zhu, which only increased his reliance on Zhu.[22] After Peng's death in 1353, Zhao emerged as the dominant leader in the region, leaving Guo and Zhu isolated.[23] Zhao sent Guo to the east and Zhu with a small detachment to the south, hoping to divide them and be able to destroy them. However, contrary to Zhao's expectations, Zhu successfully occupied several counties and bolstered his army to twenty thousand soldiers. Guo moved with Zhao's ten thousand men to join him.[23]

Regional ruler

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Establishment in Nanjing (1355–1360)

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In the beginning of 1355, Zhu, Guo, and Zhang Shicheng, who was located further east, made the decision to leave the war-torn territories and cross the Yangtze River to the prosperous southern regions that had not yet been affected by the war.[24] However, a dispute arose between Guo and Zhu over the city of Hezhou, situated on the banks of the Yangtze River. Zhu even formed an alliance with Sun Deyai, Guo's old enemy. Before the conflict could escalate, Guo died.[25] Following this, the rebel Song emperor Han Lin'er appointed Guo's eldest son, Guo Tianxu,[26] as his successor. Guo's brother-in-law, Zhang Tianyu, was chosen as the first deputy of the new commander, with Zhu as the second deputy.[9] In order to cross the Yangtze River, the Hezhou rebels required a fleet, which they acquired in July 1355 when a group of rebels from Chao Lake arrived. They successfully crossed the river that same month.[25] Zhu immediately defeated the local Yuan commander, Chen Esen, who then surrendered to him. However, in September 1355, during an attempt to conquer Jiqing (present-day Nanjing), Chen Esen betrayed Guo Tianxu. In the ensuing battles, Guo Tianxu, Zhang Tianyu and Chen Esen himself were killed.[27]

In March 1356, Zhu once again marched on Jiqing. The new Mongol commander, Chen Zhaoxian (Template:Zhi), who was the nephew and successor of Chen Esen, surrendered with thirty-six thousand men. In April 1356, Zhu successfully entered the city.[27] After conquering it, he renamed the city Yingtian, which means 'In response to Heaven'.[28] In May 1356, Han Lin'er appointed Zhu as the head of Jiangnan Province, one of the five provinces of the Song state.[29] Guo's remaining son was chosen as his deputy. However, Zhu soon accused Guo's son of plotting against him and had him executed. This allowed Zhu to establish clear leadership and he immediately began to build his administration. However, he could not fully trust the loyalty of his generals. Until the victory at Lake Poyang in 1363, there were instances of betrayal and defection to the enemy.[27][30]

He was now in command of an army of one hundred thousand soldiers, which was divided into divisions or wings (Template:Zhi; yi). In Nanjing itself, there were eight divisions and one per prefecture.[31] From 1355 to 1357, he launched attacks against Zhang Shicheng in the direction of Suzhou and successfully occupied southern Jiangxi;[g] after this, the border with Zhang's state was fortified on both sides and remained stable until 1366.[31] In Zhejiang, from 1358 to 1359, he controlled four impoverished inland prefectures,[31] while Zhang Shicheng held control over four prosperous northern coastal prefectures, and Fang Guozhen occupied the eastern coast of the province.[32]

In the summer of 1359, the Mongol warlord Chaghan Temur expelled Han Lin'er from Kaifeng. Han was left with only a few hundred soldiers, but as Chaghan Temur focused on conquering Shandong, Han's group was able to survive in Anfeng, a prefectural city in the west of Anhui.[23] After the retreat from Kaifeng, the Song government's power weakened rapidly. Apart from Zhu Yuanzhang's effectively independent Jiangnan, no Song province survived 1362.[33] In 1361, Han Lin'er appointed Zhu as the Duke of Wu (Wu Guogong)[29][f] and recognized his rule in all the territories he conquered.[34] However, Zhu feared the advance of the Yuan troops in the southern direction, all the way to Nanjing. As a result, he proposed cooperation with Chaghan Temur. After Chaghan Temur's army was unable to make progress in Shandong and he was murdered in the summer of 1362, the threat from the Yuan side disappeared. As a result, Zhu rejected the Yuan government's offer of the post of governor of Jiangxi province.[35]

The ideology of the Red Turbans did not resonate with Zhu. Instead of trying to establish a new intellectual elite based on the Manichean-Buddhist beliefs of the White Lotus, he chose to collaborate with Confucian intellectuals.[36] This shift in approach transformed him from a leader of a popular sectarian uprising to the leader of a political movement seeking traditional legitimacy. Nevertheless, he still relied on the support of his officers who shared his devotion to the teachings of the White Lotus.[37]

In 1354, he began working with Li Shanchang, a landowner from Dingyuan County, the first county conquered by Zhu. Li Shanchang was responsible for running the civil administration, and as Zhu conquered more cities, he recruited more scholars to join his cause.[38] After repeated requests from Zhu in 1360, a group of prominent scholars, led by Song Lian and Liu Ji, joined his service.[39] These scholars, known as the Jinhua school,[h] had a clear vision of a unified state governed by a small but efficient bureaucracy. They aimed to eliminate corruption, which was prevalent during the end of the Yuan dynasty.[40][41] They believed that the state and its laws could be used to improve public morals and customs. While their motives may have differed from the emperor's, they shared a desire to bring about change through a strong state and an active monarch.[42]

As an independent ruler, Zhu advocated for moderation in tax collection. However, other rebel leaders and his own generals prioritized military needs and often confiscated grain from peasants to feed their soldiers or prevent it from falling into the hands of their enemies.[43] In contrast, Zhu placed great importance on maintaining orderly government and promoting a peaceful life for the inhabitants of his territory. He achieved this by working closely with local elites and understanding the needs of the villagers, having grown up as the son of a poor peasant himself.[41] Zhu's principles also proved beneficial for the economy of the controlled territory. In 1361, he began minting coins, established a monopoly on the sale of salt and tea, and started collecting traditional customs duties in 1362. These measures resulted in an increase in tax revenues, which were crucial for funding successful military campaigns.[39]

Conquest of Han (1360–1365)

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China in 1360. Zhu Yuanzhang ruled the southern part (red) of the Song empire.
 
Xu Da, the Hongwu Emperor's most trusted general. Illustration from the collection of biographies of Wanxiaotang Huazhuan (Template:Zhi), 1743.

In the beginning of 1360, Zhu controlled the southwestern part of Jiangsu, all of Anhui south of the Yangtze River, and the inland of Zhejiang. By 1393, these territories had a population of 7.8 million.[32] The domain (known as the Kingdom of Wu since 1363),[f] led by Zhang Shicheng, had comparable power with a larger population but worse organization. Chen Youlang's state of Han had a similar situation.[32] The state of Han, located west of Zhu's territory, included the provinces of Jiangxi and Hubei. Zhang, based in Suzhou, controlled the lower reaches of the Yangtze, from the eastern borders of Zhu's dominions to the sea. While Zhu, Zhang, and Chen divided up the Yangtze River Basin, the rest of southern and central China was largely under the control of "one-province" regimes. Fang Guozhen controlled the eastern Chinese coast, Ming Yuzhen ruled in Sichuan, and the trio of Yuan loyalists (Chen Youding, He Zhen, and Basalawarmi) controlled Fujian, Guangdong, and Yunnan. These provincial regimes were unable to threaten the "big three", but were strong in defense.[32]

The war between Zhu's Jiangnan and Chen Youliang's Han state from 1360 to 1363 had a devastating impact on the balance of power in the Yangtze River Basin. This conflict not only gave Zhu a significant advantage over other rivals, but also increased his prestige among his own people.[32] The fighting began when the Han army attacked Nanjing in 1360, but they were quickly defeated by Zhu.[44] In 1361, the war spread to the Han province of Jiangxi, which changed hands multiple times.[45] By the following year, Zhu had gained control of the province.[46]

In January 1363, Zhang Shicheng's army launched a surprise attack on Anfeng, the residence of Song emperor Han Lin'er, resulting in the death of Liu Futong, the de facto leader of the regime. Despite being formally under the control of the Song government, Zhu offered his army to assist Han Lin'er, who was still highly respected among the troops.[47] As a result, the powerless Han Lin'er was relocated to Chuzhou, located west of Nanjing on the opposite side of the Yangtze River.[48] However, the army remained stationed in the north until August 1363.[49]

The departure of Zhu's main forces to the north presented Chen with an opportunity to turn the tide of the war. He quickly raised an army of three hundred thousand, outnumbering Zhu's remaining forces.[49] Chen's plan was to capture Nanchang and then rally the local leaders in Jiangxi to join his cause and attack Nanjing.[49] However, the Nanchang garrison, led by Deng Yu (Template:Zhi), held out until early June 1363. In mid-August, Zhu's army and fleet finally set out from Nanjing with approximately one hundred thousand soldiers.[50] The two fleets clashed on Lake Poyang on 29 August 1363, engaging in a four-day battle that resulted in the defeat of the Han fleet and the death of Chen Youliang.[51]

In 1364–1365, Zhu focused on conquering and absorbing the Han's territories. Numerous Han prefectural and county commanders surrendered without resistance, and Huguang was pacified by General Xu Da by April 1365. By February 1365, Generals Chang Yuchun and Deng Yu had gained control over central and southern Jiangxi.[52] This annexation of territories provided Zhu with a significant population advantage over its adversaries. The main threats to Zhu at this time were the Mongol warlord Köke Temür in northern China and Zhang Shicheng, who was based in Suzhou.[53]

Expansion of the army with former Han troops required a reorganization of the military.[54] Therefore, in 1364, Zhu implemented the Weisuo system, which involved the formation of guards (wei) comprising of 5,600 soldiers. These guards were further divided into 5 battalions (qianhusuo) of 1,120 soldiers each, with 10 companies (baihusuo) in each battalion.[55]

After 1364, the army was made up of 17 guards consisting of veterans who had previously served before 1363. The older veterans were demobilized, while the others were assigned to the garrison in Nanjing where they worked as military peasants, using their production to provide food for the army.[56] Additional soldiers, who were reliable but had shorter periods of service, were acquired during the conquest of southern Anhui and central Zhejiang. They were stationed in the former Han territory, with field armies concentrated in Nanchang and Wuchang, and garrisons scattered across Jiangxi and Huguang.[57] The remaining soldiers, mostly former Han soldiers, were joined by some veterans in the field armies sent to fight against the state of Wu under the leadership of Generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun.[57]

Conquest of Wu and proclamation of the Ming dynasty (1364–1368)

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Changmen Gate in Suzhou. The ten-month conquest of Suzhou, the seat of Zhang Shicheng, was one of the most fierce battles fought by Zhu's troops.

After Chen Youliang's defeat, Zhu took on the title of King of Wu (Wu wang) starting from the new year (4 February) of 1364, which was the same title used by Zhang Shicheng since October 1363.[58][f] Despite this, he still acknowledged his subordinate status to emperor Han Lin'er and used the Song era of Longfeng as long as Han was alive. However, he ran his own administration, following the model of the Yuan dynasty.[58]

In 1365–67, Zhu conquered the Zhang's state of Wu. Zhang attempted to attack in late 1364, before the enemy could exploit the potential of the newly conquered territories. However, their offensive was repulsed in the spring of 1365.[59] Before launching a final attack on the enemy's heartland, the Suzhou region, Zhu and his generals decided to first "cut off the wings" of Wu by occupying the territory north of the Yangtze and the Wu part of Zhejiang. Xu Da was appointed as the supreme commander of the attacking troops, and the plan was executed with ease due to the attacking army's superiority. The ten-month siege of Suzhou began in December 1366.[60]

In January 1367, Han Lin'er drowned in the Yangtze River.[48] As a result, Zhu's state of Wu officially declared its independence. A year later, in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor and changed the name of the state. He followed the Mongol tradition of elevating titles[61] and named the empire "Great Ming" (Da Ming; Template:Zhi; 'Great Radiance'). He also renamed the upcoming "second year of the Wu era" as the "first year of the Hongwu era" (Template:Zhi; 'Vastly Martial').[62]

Unification of China

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In the autumn of 1367, Zhu's troops launched an attack against Fang Guozhen. By December of that year, they had successfully taken control of the entire coast.[63] In November 1367, Hu Mei's army, along with the fleets of Tang He and Liao Yongzhong, began their journey south. By February 1368, they had easily conquered Fujian, and by April 1368, they had also taken control of Guangdong. In July 1368, with the reinforcement of Yang Jing's army from Huguang, Guangxi province was also occupied.[64]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Zhu Yuanzhang had already been in control of Nanjing since 1356, and was conferred the title of "Duke of Wu" (吳國公) by the rebel leader Han Lin'er (韓林兒) in 1361. He started autonomous rule as the self-proclaimed "Prince of Wu" on 4 February 1364. He was proclaimed emperor on 23 January 1368 and established the Ming dynasty on that same day.
  2. ^ Upon his successful usurpation in 1402, the Yongle Emperor voided the era of the Jianwen Emperor and continued the Hongwu era until the beginning of Chinese New Year in 1403, when the new Yongle era came into effect. This dating continued for a few of his successors until the Jianwen era was reestablished in the late 16th century.
  3. ^ Conferred by the Jianwen Emperor
  4. ^ Conferred by the Yongle Emperor
  5. ^ Changed by the Jiajing Emperor
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Wu is a geographical term derived from the ancient state of Wu, which refers to the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. The use of the titles Duke of Wu (from 1361; from 1364 King of Wu) by Zhu Yuanzhang and King of Wu (from 1363) by Zhang Shicheng reflected their rivalry and denial of each other's legitimacy.
  7. ^ He conquered Zhenjiang, Changzhou, Changxing, Jiangyin, Changshu, and Yangzhou.[31]
  8. ^ According to the Jinhua Prefecture in Zhejiang, where they were concentrated.[40]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976)，第258–259頁.
  2. ^ Tsai (2001)，第28頁.
  3. ^ Becker (1998)，第131頁.
  4. ^ Becker (2007)，第167頁.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Dreyer (1982)，第67頁.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Dreyer (1982)，第68頁.
  7. ^ Farmer (1995)，第8頁.
  8. ^ Dreyer (1982)，第22–23頁.
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 Mote (1988)，第44頁.
  10. ^ Chan, David B. Hongwu. Encyclopædia Britannica. [19 June 2011]. 
  11. ^ Wu (1980)，第20頁.
  12. ^ Mote (2003)，第543–545頁.
  13. ^ Mote (2003)，第545–546頁.
  14. ^ Farmer (1995)，第18頁.
  15. ^ Mote (2003)，第548頁.
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 Gascoigne (2003)，第150頁.
  17. ^ Farmer (1995)，第23–24頁.
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 Dreyer (1988)，第62頁.
  19. ^ Ebrey (1999)，第190–191頁.
  20. ^ Mote (2003)，第549頁.
  21. ^ Mote (2003)，第550頁.
  22. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第63頁.
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Dreyer (1988)，第68頁.
  24. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第68–69頁.
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 Dreyer (1988)，第69頁.
  26. ^ Wu (1980)，第61頁.
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Dreyer (1988)，第70頁.
  28. ^ Mote (2003)，第552頁.
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 Mote (1988)，第52頁.
  30. ^ Farmer (1995)，第23頁.
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Dreyer (1988)，第71頁.
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 Dreyer (1988)，第72頁.
  33. ^ Mote (1988)，第53頁.
  34. ^ Mote (1988)，第52–53頁.
  35. ^ Wu (1980)，第79頁.
  36. ^ Farmer (1995)，第5–6頁.
  37. ^ Wu (1980)，第72頁.
  38. ^ Mote (1988)，第48頁.
  39. ^ 39.0 39.1 Mote (1988)，第54頁.
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 Dardess (1983)，第582頁.
  41. ^ Theobald, Ulrich. Chinese History - Yuan Dynasty 元朝 (1206/79-1368) event history. The End of Mongol Rule. Chinaknowledge - a universal guide for China studies. [16 January 2011]. 
  42. ^ Farmer (1995)，第7頁.
  43. ^ Dreyer (1982)，第123頁.
  44. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第77頁.
  45. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第78頁.
  46. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第79頁.
  47. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第82頁.
  48. ^ 48.0 48.1 Mote (1988)，第51頁.
  49. ^ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Dreyer (1988)，第83頁.
  50. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第84頁.
  51. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第85–86頁.
  52. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第89–90頁.
  53. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第89頁.
  54. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第90–91頁.
  55. ^ Wakeman (1985)，第25頁.
  56. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第91頁.
  57. ^ 57.0 57.1 Dreyer (1988)，第91–92頁.
  58. ^ 58.0 58.1 Mote (1988)，第55頁.
  59. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第92頁.
  60. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第92–93頁.
  61. ^ Dreyer (1982)，第69–70頁.
  62. ^ Langlois (1988)，第111頁.
  63. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第96–97頁.
  64. ^ Dreyer (1988)，第97頁.

Works cited

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編輯
Min968/Hongwu Emperor
出生於：21 October1328逝世於：24 June1398
統治者頭銜
新頭銜
Ming dynasty was established in 1368.
 Emperor of the Ming dynasty
1368–1398 		繼任者：
Jianwen Emperor
前任者：
Ukhaghatu Khan Toghon Temür (Yuan dynasty) 		Emperor of China
1368–1398
中國皇族
未知 Prince of Wu
1364–1368 		Merged into the Crown

Template:Ming emperors



Category:Emperors of the Ming dynasty Category:Ming dynasty Buddhists Category:Chinese Buddhist monarchs Category:14th-century Chinese monarchs Category:Medieval legislators Category:Politicians from Chuzhou Category:People from Fengyang Category:History of Nanjing Category:1328 births Category:1398 deaths Category:Burials in Nanjing Category:Founding monarchs Category:Red Turban rebels Category:Chinese reformers

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