认知语言学
认知语言学(英语:Cognitive linguistics)是语言学的一门颇新分支,它脱胎自认知心理学或认知科学,大约在1980年代后期至1990年代开始成型。认知语言学涉及电脑自然语言理解、人工智能、语言学、心理学、神经科学、系统论等多种学科,它针对当时仍很火热的生成语言学,提出:语言的创建、学习及运用,从基本上都必须能够透过人类的认知而加以解释,因为认知能力是人类知识的根本。
认知语言学有以下三大分支:
认知语言学的创立者普遍被认为是乔治·莱考夫(George Lakoff)、马克·詹森(Mark Johnson)及朗奴·兰盖克。当中雷可夫及詹森专门研究语言中的比喻及其与人类认知的关系;而兰盖克的专长在于认知文法的生成。
背景
编辑认知语言学起源自诺姆·乔姆斯基于1959年对斯金纳《语言行为》的批判性评论。乔姆斯基对行为心理学的抛弃以及他随后的作为反行为主义者的活动,使得心理学的焦点在认知心理学和认知科学的新概念下,从经验主义转向了心灵主义(mentalism)。[3]
乔姆斯基在20世纪70年代把语言学看作是认知科学的一个分支,但把他的模型称为转换语法或生成语法。在与乔姆斯基的语言学之争中[4],乔治·莱考夫与罗纳德·兰加克等新达尔文主义语言学的倡导者在20世纪80年代初结合成了所谓的“莱考夫—兰加克协议”。有人认为,他们选择“认知语言学”作为他们的新框架的名称,是为了逐渐削弱生成语法作为认知科学的声誉。[5]
至今有三种竞争的方法视自己为认知语言学的真正代表。一种是莱考夫-兰加克派,其开首字母为大写(Cognitive Linguistics,狭义的认知语言学)。第二种是生成语法派,而第三种方法是由一些学者提出的,他们的工作不属于另外两种方法的范围。他们认为,认知语言学不应被视为一个特定的选择框架的名称,而应被视为一个完整的科学研究领域,通过其证据价值而不是理论价值进行评估。[2]
方法
编辑生成语法
编辑生成语法是大脑语言计算假设的来源。它被认为是“语言的认知神经科学”的研究[6]。生成语法对行为本能及认知语言算法的生物学本质进行了研究,提供了一种计算性的心理表征理论。[7]
实际上,这意味着语言学家把句子分析视为揭示认知结构的一种方式。有人认为是人类的随机基因突变导致了句法结构出现在大脑中。因此,人们拥有语言的事实并不依赖于它的交际目的。[8][9]
一个著名的例子是,语言学家诺姆·乔姆斯基认为,"饿了的人是否在点餐(Is the man who is hungry ordering dinner )"这类句子非常罕见,儿童不可能听过。即使如此他们还是可以产生这些句子,这就进一步指出,这种结构不是学来的,而是从先天的认知语言元件中获得的。于是,生成语法学家们把通过自省找出所有关于先天结构的资讯作为他们的任务,从而形成一幅假设的语言官能图景。[10][11]
生成语法提倡心智模块化的观点,认为语言是一个自主的心智模块。因此,语言从数理逻辑中分离出来,以至于推理在语言习得中起不到任何作用[12]。除语言学外,乔姆斯基的思想在认知心理学、计算机科学[13]和自由意志社会主义思潮中都有影响。
Cognitive Linguistics (语言学框架)
编辑认知语言学的方法中,有一种方法叫做狭义的认知语言学(Cognitive Linguistics),首字母为大写,但也常以全小写字母拼写。这场运动始于20世纪80年代初,乔治·莱考夫的隐喻理论与罗纳德·兰加克的认知语法相结合,随后的构式语法模型也从不同的作者那里吸收过来。这种结合包含了两种不同的语言和文化演化方法:一种是概念隐喻的方法,另一种是构造的方法。认知语言学将自己定义为与生成语法相对立,认为语言在大脑中的功能是根据一般性的认知原则所实现。[14]莱考夫和兰加克的思想被应用于各个科学领域。除了语言学和翻译理论,认知语言学也对文学研究[15]、教育[16]、社会学[17]、音乐学[18]、计算机科学[19]和神学[20]等领域产生影响。
A.概念隐喻理论
编辑美国语言学家乔治·莱考夫认为,隐喻不仅仅是语言的修辞手法,而是思维模态。莱考夫假设,抽象推理的原则可能是由低等动物中存在的视觉思维和空间关系的表示机制演化而来[21]。概念化(Conceptualisation)被认为是基于知识的体化(embodiment ),建立在视觉和运动的物理经验之上。例如,情感的“隐喻”建立在向下运动的基础上,而理性的隐喻则建立在向上运动的基础上,像是说“讨论落入了情感层面,而我将其升回理性层面。”[22]有人认为,语言不是一种认知能力,而是依赖于其他认知技能,这些技能包括知觉、注意、运动技能以及视觉处理和空间处理等[14],同样的道理也适用于其他的认知现象,比如时间感。
在我们的视觉系统中,我们有运动侦测器和物体位置侦测器,没有时间侦测器(无论这意味着什么)。因此,从生物学角度来说,时间应该按照事物和运动来理解。 —乔治·莱考夫
B.认知语法与构式语法
编辑构式(Constructions)作为语法的基本单位,是约定俗成的形式-意义配对,与作为语言演化单位的迷因相当[24][25][26][27]。它们被认为是多层次的。例如,习语是较高层次的构式,其中包含作为中层构式的单词,而这些单词又可能包含作为低层构式的语素。有学者认为,人类不仅具有相同的体型,这使得体化表征有了共同基础;而构式则为言语共同体中一致的表达方式提供了共同基础[28]。像生物一样,构式也有着生命周期,语言学家对此进行了研究[24]。
根据认知主义和构式主义的观点,在单词的传统意义上并不存在语法。通常所认为的语法是构式清单,是一个复杂适应性系统,[29]或者是一个构式总体[30]。从语言习得到语料库语言学,所有的语言研究领域都对构式展开了研究[31]。
整合认知语言学
编辑认知语言学还有第三种方法,它是既不直接支持模块化(生成语法),也不支持反模块化(Cognitive Linguistics)的思维观。第三种观点的支持者认为,根据大脑的研究,语言处理虽然不能独立于其他类型的资讯处理,但也是专门化的。语言被认为是人类认知能力中的一种,与知觉、注意力、记忆力、运动技能、视觉和空间处理齐肩运作,而不隶属于它们。强调的是一种认知语义学,研究意义的上下文-概念性质。[32]
争议
编辑认知语言学的具体意义、名称的恰当性以及该学派的科学地位都受到了质疑。有人声称,许多所谓的认知语言学并没有名副其实。[33]
在我看来,“认知语言学”是一种利用认知心理学和神经生物学等方面的研究成果来探索人类大脑如何产生和解释语言的语言学。换句话说,认知语言学是一门认知科学,而“Cognitive Linguistics”不是。在我看来,大多数生成语言学也不是真正的认知语言学。[1] — Bert Peeters
有人认为,上述利用 "认知 "标签的框架是伪科学,因为它们对心灵和大脑的看法违背了现代人对神经科学的基本理解,而是建立在毫无科学依据的大师教义之上。据说这类框架的成员还利用其他研究者的研究结果,将其作为自己的工作来介绍[2]。虽然这种批评大部分被接受,但有人声称一些研究仍然产生了有用的见解。[34]
认知语言学的知名人物
编辑参见
编辑参考文献
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- ^ Ellis, Nick C. The emergence of language as a Complex Adaptive System. Simpson, James (编). Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics. 2011: 666–679 [2020-05-31]. ISBN 9780203835654. (原始内容存档于2020-07-12).
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资料来源
编辑- Evans, Vyvyan & Melanie Green (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
- Evans, Vyvyan (2007). A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
- Gibbs (1996) in Casad ED. Cognitive Linguistics in the Redwoods: The Expansion of a New Paradigm in Linguistics (Cognitive Linguistic Research) Mouton De Gruyter (June 1996) ISBN 9783110143584.
- Langlotz, Andreas. 2006. Idiomatic Creativity: A Cognitive-linguistic Model of Idiom-representation And Idiom Variation in English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
- Charteris-Black, J. (2004). Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis. Palgrave-MacMillan. ISBN 1403932921
- Croft, W. & D. A. Cruse (2004) Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Evans, Vyvyan & Melanie Green (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
- Evans, Vyvyan (2007). A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
- Evans, Vyvyan, Benjamin K. Bergen and Jörg Zinken (Eds.) (2007). The Cognitive Linguistics Reader. London: Equinox Publishing Co.
- Evans, Vyvyan, Benjamin Bergen and Jörg Zinken (2007). "The Cognitive Linguistics Enterprise: An Overview" (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). In Vyvyan Evans, Benjamin Bergen and Jörg Zinken (Eds.). The Cognitive Linguistics Reader [listed above].
- Fauconnier, G. (1997). Mappings in Thought and Language.
- Fauconnier, Gilles has written a brief, manifesto-like introduction to Cognitive linguistics, which compares it to mainstream, Chomsky-inspired linguistics. See "Introduction to Methods and Generalizations" in T. Janssen and G. Redeker (Eds) (1999). Scope and Foundations of Cognitive Linguistics. The Hague: Mouton De Gruyter. Cognitive Linguistics Research Series. (on-line version (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆))
- Fauconnier, Gilles and Mark Turner (2003). The Way We Think (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). New York: Basic Books.
- Geeraerts, D. & H. Cuyckens, eds. (2007). The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978 0 19 514378 2.
- Geeraerts, D., ed. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings. Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
- Gibbs Jr., Raymond W. and Herbert L. Colston (1995). "The cognitive psychological reality of image schemas and their transformations". Cognitive Linguistics (includes Cognitive Linguistic Bibliography). Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 347–378, ISSN (Online) 1613-3641, ISSN (Print) 0936-5907.
- Goossens, Louis (Oct. 2009). Metaphtonymy: the interaction of metaphor and metonymy in expressions for linguistic action. Cognitive Linguistics (includes Cognitive Linguistic Bibliography). Volume 1, Issue 3, Pages 323–342, ISSN (Online) 1613-3641, ISSN (Print) 0936-5907, DOI: 10.1515/cogl.1990.1.3.323
- Grady, Oakley, and Coulson (1999). "Blending and Metaphor". In Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics, Steen and Gibbs (eds.). Philadelphia: John Benjamins. (online version (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆))
- Jackendoff, Ray (1996). "Conceptual semantics and Cognitive linguistics". In Cognitive Linguistics 7-1, pp. 93-129. Online Version.
- Kristiansen et al., eds. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives. Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
- Lakoff, George (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0 226 46804 6.
- Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press.
- Lee, D.A. (2001). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction (1st ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
- Rohrer, T. (2007). "Embodiment and Experientialism". In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics [listed above].
- Schmid, H. J. et al. (1996). An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. New York, Longman.
- Silverman, Daniel (2011). "Usage-based Phonology", in Bert Botma, Nancy C. Kula, and Kuniya Nasukawa, eds., Continuum Companion to Phonology. Continuum.
- Taylor, J. R. (2002). Cognitive Grammar. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
- Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press.
- Wolf, et al. (2006), The Cognitive Linguistics Bibliography, Mouton De Gruyter, Berlin.
外部链接
编辑- 联经出版社:《我们赖以生存的譬喻》
- 中国侨网:认知语言学在中国 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- International Cognitive Linguistics Association (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- UK Cognitive Linguistics Association (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- Annotated Cognitive Linguistics Reading List (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (Vyv Evans)
- JohnQPublik's Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) is an informal overview of the field, comparing it to traditional Chomskyan linguistics.
- Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (Mark Turner).
- The Gestalt Theory and Linguistics Page (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) deals with the relationship between Gestalt theory and cognitive linguistics.
- The Center for the Cognitive Science of Metaphor Online is a collection of numerous formative articles in the fields of conceptual metaphor and conceptual integration.