地震预测
地震预测(earthquake prediction)是预测一次地震发生的时间、地点和规模。地震学家目前仍无法预测地震的确切发生时间[1],然而对地下构造了解的进步,科学家能透过震灾危害度评估,提供特定规模的地震在未来数年到数十年之间,发生在某区域的机率,以供建筑物和公共建设设定最低防震规范。虽然部份证据表明,对某些区域的地震预报或许有实用价值,然而这些技术的可靠性既未确立,也无法重制,所以地震学家及地质学家一般认为实用的地震预测还是梦想。
争议
编辑人们试图以各种自然现象预测地震,例如电磁场、天气状况、地震云、土壤或地下水的氡气或氢气含量、井水水位及动物行为等。
地震预测迄今仍深具争议性;一方面是因为资料不足,另一方面则缺乏能证实上述因果联系的科学理论。此外,只要做出大量预测,便容易碰巧言中。大部分的预测方法都基于机率模型;由于大地震鲜少发生,其地点与时间又相当集中,目前我们很难鉴定一次“成功”的预测是否只是侥幸而已。
2009年拉奎拉地震发生后,几位科学家因未能提出足够警告,依过失杀人罪被判6年徒刑,在欧美科学界引发一片惊慌和挞伐之声,学者警告这恐造成寒蝉效应。[2] 厄尔斯特大学(University of Ulster)地震物理学教授史迪西(Sandy Steacy)认为:“若维持原判,这项判决将对义大利和全欧洲的地震科学造成寒蝉效应。”科学工作者关怀联盟(UCS)学者郝普恩(Michael Halpern)认为:“这项决定荒谬又危险,美国官员应该非难它,义大利总统乔治奥·纳波利塔诺(Giorgio Napolitano)应该推翻这个决定。”英国地质调查所(BGS)的穆森(Roger Musson)说:“这6名科学家说的是正确的,任何地震学家都会支持他们的说法。他们尽力提供科学的建议却被判刑,这是错的。”
预测方法
编辑电磁波异常
编辑实验证明,岩石在破裂之前,会释放出电磁波,然而对于如何影响到大的范围仍有许多疑问;部份研究则认为是岩石内的石英受到压力时产生的压电效应所造成;也有人认为是由于地下水位的改变所引起。 [3]
Demeter微型卫星
编辑Demeter(希腊神话的女神得墨忒耳)为地震区电磁放射侦测(英文:"Detection of Electro-Magnetic Emissions Transmitted from Earthquake Regions")的缩写。Demeter卫星由法国国家太空研究中心建造,目前已观察到某类低频电磁活动与地震活跃带的关系,并在2004年9月5日日本东海地方发生面波震级7.1地震前一周观察到明显的电离层活动及温度变化[4]。
VAN方法
编辑VAN 是一套由 Varotsos、Alexopoulos 与 Nomicos 三位希腊学者在1980年代提出的地震预测法。此法以埋入地下的金属棍侦测地震电磁信号(英文:seismic electric signals),部份学者声称能预测大于五级的地震,震央误差在100公里以内、震度误差在0.7个单位内、时间窗口为2小时至11天。这个方法受到 Sir James Lighthill 的批判性考察[5],此外也在日本激起一些科学上的兴趣[6]。
水氡异常
编辑指地下水中氡气含量的突然大幅度增加或减少。在多次大地震前已观测到这种现象,其原因可能是地应力的变化使岩石释放出一定量的氡气,从而导致地下水中氡气含量的变化。
地震活动型态的改变
编辑前震
编辑发生在相近时间或空间上的一连串地震,依照发生次序可分为前震 、主震和馀震,难以判别主震的地震序列称之为群震。不同型态的地震序列是由于地壳非均质所引起许多大地震在来临前,断层破裂区域的地震活动会明显的增加,最著名的案例为1975年的海城地震。
动物行为
编辑根据民间传说,一些动物能预知地震来临,特别是猫、狗、鸡、马及其他小型动物;大型动物对此则较不敏感。[原创研究?]日本学者也曾对鲶鱼的行为进行长期研究。[来源请求]
也有人主张动物的异常行为源于低频电磁辐射信号。科罗拉多大学的学者证实石英岩断裂时能藉压电效应产生电磁活动。这类活动可于震前在断层线上发生。根据最近的研究,电磁感应器能在统计学的意义上有效预测地震[7]
中国曾有系统地研究了动物的异常表现,并在1974年12月预测隔年二月发生的海城地震;然而该次预测主要是依靠一系列的强烈前震。关于动物行为的报导通常模棱两可;目前还无法证明动物能预知地震,即使动物能感知P波,但地震仪对此更敏感[8]。
案例
编辑中国
编辑中国地震预测主要是基于震前的异常事件,例如地下水位、动物行为或前震等等。有报道与学者统计自1975年2月4日中国地震学家曾成功预报了辽宁省海城大地震[9]起,中国地震学家根据统计学与临震异常共预测成功并发布了短期、临震预报的地震共有28次[10][11]。包括了1990年9月22日北京小汤山4级地震[12]、1994年2月16日青海共和5.8级地震[13][14]、1995年7月12日云南孟连7.3级地震[15]、1997年4月6日新疆伽师6.3级、6.4级地震[16]、2003年云南大姚7月21日6.2级地震、10月16日6.1级地震[17]、2003年10月25日甘肃民乐6.1级地震[18]等。
但是1976年7月28日唐山大地震事前虽有中长期趋势判断,但并无短期、临震预报。造成当次地震242,769到655,237人死亡以及164,851人重伤;2008年5月12日的汶川大地震,同样也无短震、临震预报,最终造成69,227到300,000人死亡,374,643人受伤,17,923人失踪。
美国
编辑2004年初,洛杉矶加利福尼亚大学由弗拉迪米尔·波洛克带领的一群科学家预言南加州九月将有一场与2003年San Simeo地震规模相当的地震,机率是百分之五十。
到了2004年4月,加州地震预报评估委员会(CEPEC)向州政府报告“预测并不可靠,而且涉及的地域广大(12,400平方哩),所以这些结果不能作为加州采取特殊手段的正当理由。”[19]结果在预报的时间窗口内并无明显地震。
义大利
编辑2009年拉奎拉地震发生前一个月,一位名叫贾宝洛的实验室技术人员,根据地面增加的放射性氡气排放量,研判会有大地震发生。结果他被义大利民防单位指控危言耸听,还被移送警方侦办,罪名是制造民众恐慌。而就在贾宝洛被移送的同时,官方的专家在拉奎拉召开会议,大量接受媒体访问,保证说不会发生地震。官方的地震测报中心官员后来遭到民众指控提供不正确的资讯,7名科学家被依过失杀人罪名、求处4年徒刑。
地震预警
编辑地震的预警监测比地震预测更可靠,其原理是侦测P波;P波在地壳中的传递速度快过具破坏力的S波及雷利波,故可先期侦测。此法只能提早数秒(对于较深及较远的大地震,或可达数十秒)预警。 现时有一套称作 QuakeGuard™ [20] 的系统能用这套技术自动应变,以减少人员及财产损失。
加州大学的 Richard Allen 在发表于《自然》的一篇论文中声称:在地震发生的前几秒,可以从地震仪的纪录中预判地震大小[21],它的结果还没被其它学者认可。若然,则地震的早期预警将能更为有效。
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