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计量革命，又称定量革命，在地理思想史中，为近代地理学发展的四个转捩点之一，另三个为环境决定论、区域地理学、批判地理学。计量革命发生于1950、60年代，为地理学研究方法的快速转变，从区域地理学进入空间科学。[1]计量革命所带来的主要转变为将地理学由描述性带入实证、有规律性的来解释地理现象。


概要与背景

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战后的1950年代，许多大学的地理系从地质系分离出来，因为地理学被批判是非科学的，地理学家为了证明地理学非二流学科而纷纷独立出来，例如美国的爱荷华大学、威斯康辛大学、华盛顿大学推动地理学朝向理论化、数量化的研究[2]。转变期间自1950年代至1970年代，将数学引进地理学，将数学当作工具，运用于统计方法以及建立数学模型。

在1950年代早期，地理学有个日益增长的意识，其地理学研究的现有典范不足以解释自然地理、经济、社会、政治是如何产生空间组织、生态的关系，以及其结果的时间和地点。因此，一个更抽象的，地理学研究的理论取径形成了，是一个不断演变的探究分析方法。

这探究的分析方法使空间面向广泛的体现在许多自然与文化背景上。这广泛可能会使刚形成的假说、模型、理论的采取形式，以及其研究被断定为合适的科学与否。这采用的分析方法会帮助地理学成为更有原则的科学。计量革命所带起的地理学新典范持续至1980年代，被人本主义及结构主义取代。


1950年代的地理学危机

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在1940年代晚期至1950年代早期，地理学危机的发生有以下几个理由：

  • The closing of many geography departments and courses in universities, e.g., the abolition of the geography program at Harvard University (a highly prestigious institution) in 1948.
  • Continuing division between human and physical geography - general talk of human geography becoming an autonomous subject.
  • Geography was seen (fairly or not) as overly descriptive and unscientific- there was, it was claimed, no explanation of why processes or phenomena occurred.
  • Geography was seen as exclusively educational - there were few if any applications of contemporary geography.
  • Continuing question of what geography is - Science, Art, Humanity or Social Science?
  • After World War II, technology became increasingly important in society, and as a result, nomothetic-based sciences gained popularity and prominence.

Debate raged predominantly (although not exclusively) in the U.S., where regional geography was the major philosophical school (European geography had never been uncomfortable with analytical methods).

All of these events presented a great threat to geography's position as an academic subject, and thus geographers began seeking new methods to counter critique. Under the (somewhat misleading) banner of the scientific method, the quantitative revolution began.

The Revolution

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The Quantitative Revolution began in the universities of Europe with the support of geographers and statisticians in both Europe and the United States. First emerging in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Quantitative Revolution responded to the rising regional geography paradigm. Under the loosely defined banner of bringing 'scientific thinking' to geography, the quantitative revolution led to an increased use of computerized statistical techniques, in particular multivariate analysis, in geographical research. The newly adopted methods reflected an array of mathematical techniques that improved precision.[来源请求]

Some of the techniques that epitomize the quantitative revolution include: [1]

The common factor, linking the above techniques, was a preference for numbers over words, plus a belief that numerical work had a superior scientific pedigree.[1]

Proponents of quantitative geography tended to present it as bringing science to geography.[来源请求] In fact, the particular contribution of the quantitative revolution was the huge faith placed in multivariate analysis and in particular methods associated with econometrics. It was also very strongly aligned with positive science,[1] and this would prove a major source of epistemological debate.[来源请求]

The overwhelming focus on statistical modelling would, eventually, be the undoing of the quantitative revolution. Many geographers became increasingly concerned that these techniques simply put a highly sophisticated technical gloss on an approach to study that was barren of fundamental theory. Other critics argued that it removed the 'human dimension' from a discipline that always prided itself on studying the human and natural world alike. As the 1970s dawned, the quantitative revolution came under direct challenge.[1]

Post-revolution Geography

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The greatest impact of the quantitative revolution was not the revolution itself but the effects that came afterwards in a form of the spread of positivist (post-positivist) thinking and counter-positivist responses.[来源请求]

The rising interest in the study of distance as a critical factor in understanding the spatial arrangement of phenomena during the revolution led to formulation of the first law of geography by Waldo Tobler. The development of spatial analysis in geography led to more applications in planning process and the further development of theoretical geography offered to geographical research a necessary theoretical background.

The greater use of computers in geography also led to many new developments in geomatics, such as the creation and application of GIS and remote sensing. These new developments allowed geographers for the first time to assess complex models on a full-scale model and over space and time. The development of geomatics led to geography being reunited, as the complexities of the human and natural environments could be assessed on new computable models. Further advances also led to a greater role of spatial statistics and modelling within geography. Eventually the quantitative revolution had its greatest impacts on the fields of physical, economic and urban geography.

The counter-positivist response from human geography was created in a form of behavioral, radical and humanistic geography[来源请求] (see the article: Critical geography).

The quantitative revolution also changed the structure of geography departments in the USA, with many physical geographers being merged with geology departments or environmental science departments, leaving the geography departments to become solely human-geography oriented. Within the UK, there was a different response to the revolution, with an increase of specialisation within the subject, and ultimately the development of systematic geography with many subfields and branches.

Additional reading

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  • Science, Philosophy and Physical Geography. Robert Inkpen, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-27954-2.
  • Explanation in Geography, David Harvey, E Arnold, ISBN 0-7131-5464-0.
  • Key Thinkers on Space and Place, Phil Hubbard, Rob Kitchin, Gill Valentine, Sage Publications Ltd, ISBN 0-7619-4963-1.
  • Social Justice and the City, Ira Katznelson (Foreword), David Harvey, Blackwell Publishers, ISBN 0-631-16476-6.
  • The Geographical Tradition: Episodes in the History of a Contested Enterprise, David N. Livingstone, Blackwell Publishers ISBN 0-631-18586-0.

See also

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References

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Template:J ^During the 1940s-1970s, it was customary to capitalize generalized concept names, especially in philosophy ("Truth, Kindness, Beauty"), plus using capital letters when naming ideologies, movements, or schools of thought. Example: "the Automobile" as a concept, versus "the automobile in a garage".
  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 "The ‘Quantitative Revolution’", GG3012(NS) Lecture 4, University of Aberdeen, 2011, webpage: AB12.
  2. ^ 施雅轩（民101）。地理思想．思想地理。高雄市：丽文文化。
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使用较快速且易控制的火盆生火，符合无痕山林的原则

无痕山林（英语：Leave No Trace，LNT）是指野外活动的一个环境伦理的概念原则，其主要目的在于保护户外环境。 refers to a set of trail ethics and also to a nonprofit organization that teaches those principles. LNT principles are designed to promote conservation in the outdoors. The organization Leave No Trace exists to educate people on their impact on nature as well as the principles of LNT to prevent and minimize such impacts.

无痕山林有七项原则，分别为事前充分的规划与准备、在可承受地点行走露营、适当处理垃圾维护环境、保持环境原有的风貌、减低用火对环境的冲击、尊重野生动植物、考量其他的使用者。

发展

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二战后的20世纪中期，经济成长，使大众旅游蓬勃发达。而在1960年代，美国大众旅游对环境产生严重冲击，造成土壤侵蚀、植被损害、动物栖息地改变等影响。[1]而无痕山林的概念自1960-70年代产生。[2]这个时期户外活动大量增加，也产生了许多新的户外用品，例如白瓦斯（去渍油）、人工纤维帐篷、睡垫等。使户外活动开始有了商业利益，导致更多人进入国家公园等地方从事户外活动。[3]在这段期间，美国林务局（英语：United States Forest Service）、美国土地管理局（英语：Bureau of Land Management）、美国国家公园管理局等政府单位开始倡导使用非机动车辆为对户外环境影响最小的旅游方式的概念。而野外资讯专家也进行了培训，在许多国家公园内向游客提倡对环境影响最小的露营方式。于1987年，三个部门合作制作了一本名为无痕山林的土地伦理的小手册。[4]

Also in the 70s, groups such as the Sierra Club were advocating minimum impact camping techniques. The Boy Scouts of America (BSA) had been actively advocating training and implementation of Leave No Trace and outdoor ethics principals early in the 70's at such places as Philmont Scout Ranch in Northern New Mexico. A pilot program in the 80s between the BSA and the Bureau of Land Management in the High Uintas Wilderness tried to reach a wide audience.

The national education program of Leave No Trace was developed in 1990 by the United States Forest Service in conjunction with the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS). At the time the USFS also created other programs such as Smokey Bear, Woodsy Owl, and previously in 1985 the Tread Lightly! program which was geared towards motorized recreation. The Bureau of Land Management joined the program in 1993 followed by the National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1994.[4]

原则

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无痕山林提供了一个户外活动维护环境的框架，将减少环境冲击的方法，初步归纳出七项原则。[5][1]

事前充分的规划与准备

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行前能事先搜集当地相关资讯、充实户外知识与技能，做好充分的准备，以降低危险及伤害。包括以下几点：[1]

  • 做好登山计划：依体能和经验选择合适的登山行程、搜集步道环境及交通接驳等资讯、详细规划行程时间、休息及夜宿地点等。
  • 了解步道及环境特性：了解当地气候及近日天气，充实有毒植物、可食植物等野外求生等常识。
  • 衣物及装备的考量：选择舒适、安全、易排汗，以及大地色系的衣物；以及保暖衣物、登山鞋、登山杖、地图及指北针、通讯设备、照明工具等。
  • 食物的准备：依个人体型及活动特性来携带适量且适当的食物，可分为行动粮以及正餐，并去除不必要的包装，以节省空间，以及厨余的处理等。
  • 队伍的组成及风险管理：小队伍为佳、降低音量以减低对环境的影响，并且需要有经验的向导或领队，也应有紧急应变的措施。

在可承受地点行走及宿营

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在适当的范围内活动，例如步道上以及营地范围内，以避免植被破坏及土壤侵蚀、地表流失。[1]

  • 行走：走在既有的步道上，避免走捷径及踩踏步道边缘，以免既有步道变宽或形成新步道。而若在没有步道的区域行走时，尽量选择岩石地、沙地、碎石地等较坚硬的地表行走，以降低对植被及土壤的伤害。
  • 露营：利用现成的营地，并缩小帐篷、煮食区等活动范围，以避免植被和土壤被破坏，另外，不要影响营地周围的树木，例如折断树枝、钉钉子等行为。而若在没有现成营地露营时，可选择大岩石、碎石等坚硬且较不影响野生动植物的区域炊食及扎营，避开重要动植物栖地、复育区等，离开营地时尽可能将周遭环境回复原貌。

适当处理垃圾维护环境

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虽然对于长时间尺度的野外环境，垃圾的影响并不显著，但垃圾的问题对于许多游客而言是很重要的，因为垃圾会大幅削弱野外环境的自然度。[6]所以必须带出所有垃圾与厨余，并妥善的处理无法携出的物品。[1]

  • 带出所有携入的物品：离开前将垃圾、厨余等带走，以避免野生动物食用，甚至误食而丧命；且不要用火或掩埋等方式处理垃圾。
  • 排遗的处理方式：排遗处理不当会导致水源污染、疾病传播等，若没有厕所，可选择远离水源、营地、步道的地方挖猫洞来排遗，利用自然的力量来分解排泄物，并将卫生纸等垃圾带下山。
  • 物品的清洗及废水的处理方式：远离水源区进行清洗，且不要使用清洁剂，可以黄豆粉、苦茶粉等取代清洁剂的使用；清洗蔬果及碗盘时需以滤网过滤食物残渣，以避免留在自然环境中，吸引昆虫或动物。

保持环境原有的风貌

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尽可能保持原始风貌，不改变或带走当地的自然与人文环境[1]，如在树上钉钉子、挖排水沟、取走岩石或树枝等。

  • 保留步道上的自然遗迹：不带走沿途发现的树木化石、石头、羽毛、古物等。
  • 不要扰乱现有的景物：以摄影、速写等方式将景物留存，不要摘花或捡石头，以免破坏环境。
  • 不要传播非原生物种致自然环境：保持背包、帐篷、鞋底的清洁，避免将种子、孢子等外来物种带入自然环境中；不要放生以及带宠物进入野外，以避免散播危害野生动植物的病菌的机会。

减低用火对环境的冲击

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以鉴于许多野地曾因为林火而被破坏，故需提倡减低环境冲击的用火方式。[1]

  • 炉具与代替性工具的运用：以质轻且效能高的炉具取代营火，避免留下炭火；以煤油灯、蜡烛灯笼等来代替营火，并避免将蜡油滴在自然环境中。
  • 低冲击的生火方式：
  • 降低火对环境的冲击：
  • 木材的挑选：
  • 火的管理：
  • 事后清理：

Respect Wildlife

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Minimizing impact on wildlife and ecosystems.

Be Considerate of Other Visitors

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Following hiking etiquette and maintaining quiet allows visitors to go through the wilderness with minimal impact on other users.

Organization

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Leave No Trace Center For Outdoor Ethics
File:Leave No Trace logo.png
成立时间1994
类型501(c)(3) Nonprofit
总部Boulder, CO, USA
Executive Director
Dana Watts
员工数17
志愿者数
25,000+
网站http://www.LNT.org

The Leave No Trace program is managed by the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics, [7] formerly Leave No Trace, Inc., which is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization. The Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics is an international nonprofit organization dedicated to the responsible enjoyment and active stewardship by all people worldwide. This mission is accomplished through education, research, volunteerism and partnerships. Leave No Trace tries to build awareness, appreciation and respect for wildlands. Since its founding in 1994, the Center has provided training in every state in the U.S. and over 25 countries. There are more than 25,000 active volunteers and members who help provide training and outreach that impacts more than 22 million people annually in the U.S. alone.

Training

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A Leave No Trace Master Educator Course is typically five days in length and designed for people who are actively teaching others outdoor skills or providing recreation information to the public. The Master Educator Course provides participants with a comprehensive overview of Leave No Trace skills and ethics through practical application in a field-based setting. The first day is spent in a classroom introducing the course and schedule, providing in-depth information on the overall Leave No Trace program and the Center for Outdoor Ethics, reviewing gear, and packing. The remaining days are spent in the field on a short backcountry trip learning and practicing the principles of Leave No Trace. Each course is staffed with a minimum of two experienced outdoor professionals who are Master Educator Instructors.

The Leave No Trace Trainer Courses are two-day trainings facilitated in an outdoor setting by Master Educators. Participants learn the concepts of Leave No Trace and prepare to teach Leave No Trace curriculum in a variety of settings. Workshop topics include the underlying ethics and seven principles of Leave No Trace.

Leave No Trace Awareness Workshops are any type of formal Leave No Trace training that are one day or less in length.

Programs

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State Advocate Program

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The Leave No Trace State Advocate Program assists interested Leave No Trace educators and volunteers with their local effort to promote and teach minimum impact outdoor ethics. These active State Advocate volunteers are a key part of the Leave No Trace program because they coordinate outreach, education and training in their respective states. The State Advocates support volunteers with Leave No Trace training, increase on-the-ground awareness and attend events to further the Leave No Trace program and mission. The State Advocates have been instrumental in building communities of volunteers and educators, state-by-state.

Subaru/Leave No Trace Traveling Trainer Program

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The Subaru/Leave No Trace Traveling Trainers provide hands-on educational workshops and training. Each presentation is unique, from an hour-long workshop to a two-day Leave No Trace Trainer Course. One team travels the West coast, one team travels the East, and the Senior Team travels the entire lower 48 states. The teams visit outdoor retail stores, National and State Parks, schools, and festivals like National Public Lands Day. These trainers also provide Leave No Trace courses specific to rock-climbing, mountain biking, sea kayaking, and others.

Promoting Environmental Awareness In Kids

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The Promoting Environmental Awareness (PEAK) Program began as a partnership program between the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics and REI in 2003. The program’s curriculum centers on providing youth, age 6-12, with information about Leave No Trace through hands-on activities, referred to as “modules”. The program is presented in a “PEAK Pack,” which includes a large packet of ready-to-go activities, supporting materials and an instructional DVD. Activities can be delivered in any sequence and are designed to be 30–60 minutes lessons each. Initially, the PEAK program included four modules. Over the past five years, the program has grown to include six standard modules, a Start Card with teaching tips, an instructional DVD, additional modules (two new modules are added per year to both PEAK and Teen), a Teen Pack and both Spanish PEAK and Teen packs. The “Packing with PEAK Fund” was created to help make the Packing with PEAK program available to youth-serving organizations across the country.

Partners

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The Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics has partnerships with the National Park Service, the U.S. Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Boy Scouts of America,[8] and the US Army Corps of Engineers. An example of how this partnership works is that wilderness areas managed by the U.S. Forest Service actively promote adherence to Leave No Trace principles. The Center has also developed partnerships with other parks, municipalities, and agencies that wish to incorporate the Leave No Trace program in information provided to the public. In 2010, the Boy Scouts of America incorporated Leave No Trace into its advancement and leadership programs.[9]

The Center for Outdoor Ethics currently has three international branches in Ireland, Australia, and Canada.

See also

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References

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维基导游上的相关旅行指南：Leave-no-trace camping
  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 无痕山林—准则与行动概念折页，台湾行政院农业委员会林务局印制。
  2. ^ In Depth History of Leave No Trace. Leave No Trace. [2006-08-03]. （原始内容存档于2006-07-18）. 
  3. ^ Turner, J.M. From Woodcraft to 'Leave No Trace':Wilderness, Consumerism, and Environmentalism in Twentieth-Century America (PDF). Environmental History (Environmental History, Vol. 7, No. 3). 2002, 7 (3): 462–484. JSTOR 3985918. doi:10.2307/3985918.  已忽略未知参数|month=（建议使用|date=） (帮助)
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Marion, Jeffrey L.; Scott E. Reid. Development of the U.S. Leave No Trace Program: An Historical Perspective (PDF). U.S. Forest Service. 2001 [2012-11-09]. 
  5. ^ Seven Principles of Leave No Trace. Leave No Trace. [2006-08-03]. （原始内容存档于2006-07-18）. 
  6. ^ Pack it in, pack it out. Teaching leave no trace. U.S. Bureau of Land Management. [2007-09-11]. （原始内容存档于2007-08-14）. 
  7. ^ Center for Outdoor Ethics. Leave No Trace. [2006-08-03]. 
  8. ^ LNT Non-profit Partners
  9. ^ 2010 Rank Requirement Changes. Boy Scouts of America. 2010 [2010-07-30]. 
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   此页面介绍的是the murder of student Lawrence "Larry" King。关于other persons named Larry King，请见“Larry King (disambiguation)”。
File:LawrenceFobesKing.jpg
Lawrence "Larry" King, victim of the E.O. Green School shooting

赖瑞金之死指的是2008年2月12日，劳伦斯·赖瑞·福贝斯·金（Lawrence Larry Fobes King，1993年1月13日—2008年2月13日），一个十五岁的跨性别学生于美国加利福尼亚州奥克斯纳德格林中学（英语：E.O. Green Junior High School）的枪杀案件。当时他被14岁的布兰登·麦金尼（Brandon McInerney)射击两次，于两天后宣告死亡。

此事件被新闻周刊描述为自1998年马修·谢巴德事件以来最严重的性别偏见犯罪，引起美国枪支暴力问题、性别表达、青少年性别认同（英语：Adolescent sexuality）等议题。[1][2]

数年后，经过许多延宕和场地的改变，麦金尼的第一次审判于2011年7月5日在洛杉矶查茨沃斯（英语：Chatsworth, Los Angeles）开始进行。[3] 审判于2011年9月1日结束，由于陪审团无法达成一致共识，法官查尔斯·坎贝尔（Charles Campbell）宣告无效。[4]检察官决定寻求第二次审判，但降低仇恨犯罪的标准，由原先的一级谋杀降为二级谋杀。[5]

2011年11月21日，麦金尼以故意杀人及使用枪来认罪二级谋杀。判处21年有期徒刑，且不得假释。[6][7]他于2011年12月19日被判刑。[8]

背景

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劳伦斯·金

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劳伦斯·赖瑞·福贝斯·金于1993年1月13日出生于[9]加利福尼亚州范朵拉的范朵拉县医疗中心（英语：Ventura County Medical Center）。在两岁时被格雷戈里·金（Gregory King）和唐恩·金（Dawn King）收养。金的亲生父亲抛弃了他因为吸毒而未能妥善照顾儿子的妻子。[1]赖瑞因注意力缺陷过动症而服药，根据格雷戈里·金的说法，赖瑞被诊断出反应性依附症（英语：reactive attachment disorder），不能与他的监护人发展关系。而赖瑞也被迫重读一年级。三年级时，10岁的金开始因其彰显阴柔特质和宣告出柜为同志而遭同学霸凌。[1]

12岁时，金因为偷窃和破坏而接受感化。2007年7月，他离开收养家庭，至一所名为卡萨帕西菲卡（Casa Pacifica）的收容中心安置[10]，因为他宣称被养父身体虐待，而格雷戈里·金否认。[1]

The bullying continued when King transferred to E.O. Green Junior High School in the seventh grade, and intensified when he began attending school wearing women's accessories and clothing, high heels and makeup in January 2008. King's younger brother Rocky also suffered bullying because of Larry's appearance.[1] The school could not legally stop King from dressing as such because of a California anti-discrimination law that prevents gender discrimination, although teachers at the school thought that his clothing was clearly in violation of school code, which prevents students from wearing clothing considered distracting.[1] The school issued a formal notice to every teacher on January 29, 2008 via email. Written by eighth-grade assistant principal Sue Parsons, it read, in part:

We have a student on campus who has chosen to express his sexuality by wearing make-up. It is his right to do so. Some kids are finding it amusing, others are bothered by it. As long as it does not cause classroom disruptions he is within his rights. We are asking that you talk to your students about being civil and non-judgmental. They don't have to like it but they need to give him his space. We are also asking you to watch for possible problems. If you wish to talk further about it please see me or Joy Epstein.[1]

Joy Epstein was one of the school's assistant principals, and also openly lesbian. Several teachers, and King's father, accused Epstein of encouraging Larry's flamboyance as part of her "political agenda."[1] King also taunted boys in the halls, saying "I know you want me" and was known to make inappropriate comments to boys while they were changing for P.E. class.[1] However, prosecuting attorneys filed court documents that stated King was not sexually harassing other students in the weeks before the shooting. McInerney and King had been in several verbal altercations described as "acrimonious" by the prosecutor.[11]

Brandon McInerney

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Brandon David McInerney was born on January 24, 1994 in Ventura, California. His mother Kendra had a criminal history and was addicted to methamphetamine.[1][9] In 1993, Kendra accused her husband William of shooting her in the arm with a .45-caliber pistol.[1] In another incident, William McInerney choked his wife almost to unconsciousness after she accused him of stealing ADHD medication from her older son.[12] He pleaded no contest and served ten days in jail and 36 months probation on a charge of domestic violence. Between August 2000 and February 2001, William McInerney had contacted Child Protective Services at least five times about concerns of his son living with his mother.[9] In 2001, he filed a restraining order against Kendra, and in 2004, Brandon was placed in the custody of his father, as his mother had entered a drug rehabilitation program.[1]

The shooting

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In July 2008, Newsweek reported that a day or two before the shooting, King walked onto the basketball court in the middle of a game and asked McInerney to be his Valentine in front of the team who then made fun of McInerney.[1] Just after lunchtime on February 11, King passed McInerney in a corridor and called out, "Love you baby". Later that day King was seen "parading" back and forth in high-heeled boots and makeup in front of McInerney. According to a teacher, a group of boys was laughing at McInerney who was getting visibly upset and assistant principal Joy Epstein, noticing McInerney's reaction, wagged her finger at him.[13] When McInerney endured teasing because of the incident, he attempted to recruit other students to assault King but no one expressed interest. He then told one of King's friends to say goodbye to him "because she would never see him [King] again".[11]

On the morning of February 12, 2008, McInerney was witnessed repeatedly looking at King during a class in a computer laboratory. At approximately 8:15 a.m local time, McInerney drew from his backpack a .22-caliber revolver belonging to relatives and shot King twice in the back of the head.[14][15][16] Following the shooting, McInerney tossed the handgun on the floor and walked from the classroom. He was apprehended by police about seven minutes later and five blocks away from the school campus.[1][12]

King was transported to St. John's Regional Medical Center where he was listed in serious condition. He was declared brain dead on February 13 but was kept on life support for two days so that his organs could be donated.[17][18]

Since McInerney has refused to speak to investigators, the motive for the shooting remains unclear.[19] According to Police Chief John Crombach, "It's pretty clear our suspect was focused on his victim and what he planned to do".[20]

Response

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Vigils and marches were organized across the United States following King's death.[21] Sympathies for King have been expressed by numerous people including Judy Shepard,[22] Human Rights Campaign president Joe Solmonese,[23] Senator Hillary Clinton and television host Ellen DeGeneres.[24] A thousand students in the Hueneme School District, where E.O. Green is located, marched to pay tribute to King on February 16, 2008, four days after the shooting.[21]

A new diversity education bill was introduced on behalf of King by California Assemblyperson Mike Eng, saying, "We need to teach young people that there's a curriculum called tolerance education that should be in every school. We should teach young people that diversity is not something to be assaulted, but diversity is something that needs to be embraced because diversity makes California the great state that it is." The bill would require mandatory classes on diversity and tolerance in California school districts.[25]

A local vigil in Ventura, California was organized one year after King's death.[10] The Day of Silence for 2008, which is intended to protest LGBT harassment and occurred on April 25, was specially dedicated to King.[26] King's father Greg is unconvinced his adoptive son was gay as Larry had only recently told him that he was actually bisexual. Greg believes that Larry was sexually harassing McInerney, and has expressed concern that Larry is being made a poster child for gay rights issues.[1]

Teachers also showed sympathy for McInerney. "We failed Brandon," a teacher said. "We didn't know the bullying was coming from the other side—Larry was pushing as hard as he could, because he liked the attention." Hundreds of children from the school have signed a petition requesting that McInerney be tried as a juvenile.[1]

Criticism of the school

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In August 2008, King's family filed a claim against E.O. Green Junior High School at Ventura County Superior Court, alleging that the school's allowing King to wear makeup and feminine clothing was a factor leading to his death.[27] According to the California Attorney General's Office, however, the school could not legally have stopped King from wearing girls' clothes because state law prevents gender discrimination.[1]

According to a Newsweek article published on July 19, 2008, some teachers at E.O. Green also allege that assistant principal Joy Epstein was "encouraging King's flamboyance to help further an 'agenda' ".[1] When Epstein was later promoted to principal at another local public school, King's father described it as a "slap in the face of my family". The superintendent, Jerry Dannenberg, stated that the promotion was given because "she was the most qualified person for the new principal job".[1]

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In February 2008, McInerney's lawyer, William Quest, was considering a change of venue.[28] On July 24, 2008, Judge Douglas Daily of the Ventura County Superior Court ruled that McInerney would stand trial as an adult,[29] with the decision being appealed.[30]

On August 7, 2008, in the same court, McInerney pleaded not guilty to premeditated murder and a hate crime. A preliminary hearing was set for September 23, 2008, which had been rescheduled for October 14, 2008.[30][31]

On September 23, 2008, the court appointed Willard Wiksell, a lawyer from Ventura, guardian ad litem for McInerney. Previously, McInerney's family took steps to fire his lawyer, William Quest, of the Public Defenders Office and hire the United Defense Group, a criminal defense law firm from Los Angeles. However, the Public Defenders Office filed a petition stating that the United Defense Group might not have McInerney's best interests in mind.[31]

On October 14, 2008, after the court received a report from the appointed guardian ad litem, and the court determined that the defendant had not been coerced into changing representation and knew what he was doing, the Ventura County Superior Court allowed McInerney to fire his Public Defender, William Quest, and the Public Defenders Office, and hire the United Defense Group together with attorney Robyn Bramson as his attorneys.[32][33] The court also denied a motion to gag the defendant's former representatives from the Public Defenders Office from speaking about the case, especially to the media.[32]

On December 8, 2008, Ventura County Superior Court ruled that McInerney, after being evaluated by a psychiatrist and a psychologist, was competent to stand trial. That same day, Scott S. Wippert, of the United Defense Group, filed a legal motion for discovery, asking the court to order the district attorney to provide documents to uncover whether prosecutors exercised discretion in sending McInerney's case to the adult court system.[34] On December 29, 2008, Judge Rebecca Riley denied the motion, stating that there was no evidence of abuse of discretion in transferring McInerney from juvenile to adult court.[35]

On January 26, 2009, the preliminary hearing was postponed until March 17,[36] to give McInerney's lawyers time to appeal Judge Riley's rejection of the December motion for discovery.[35] On March 18, 2009, the hearing was once again postponed, when William McInerney, the father of Brandon, was found dead in his living room in the Silver Strand area near Oxnard after he sustained an accidental head injury from a fall.[37] Brandon McInerney was granted Judge Riley's permission to leave the juvenile detention facility and attend his father's funeral.[38]

On August 27, 2009, at his arraignment in Ventura County Superior Court, McInerney pleaded not guilty to all charges. The judge, Bruce Young, set the pretrial hearing date for October 23, 2009, and a trial start date for December 1, 2009.[39]

On September 1, 2009, Ventura County Superior Court Judge Kevin DeNoce ruled that the addition of a lying-in-wait allegation to the list of charges was acceptable. The addition of this allegation would automatically mean that the case must be heard in an adult court. The addition was petitioned, and in November the Ventura 2nd District Appellate Court denied the request to overturn the earlier ruling, finding that the District Attorney’s Office did not act vindictively in adding the lying-in-wait allegation to the murder charge.[40]

On January 21, 2010, the State Supreme Court rejected the petition to overturn the earlier ruling by the Ventura County Superior Court judge.[40]

After a postponement from May 14, 2010, McInerney’s trial was set to commence on July 14, 2010, in Ventura County Superior Court,[41] but was again postponed. A hearing was slated for April 4, 2011, to determine whether McInerney's attorneys would be ready for a trial beginning on May 2.[42] Previous postponements followed motions from defense attorneys requesting recusal of the district attorney, a change of venue, and more time for fact-finding.[43] In August 2010, Ventura County Superior Court Judge Charles Campbell ruled that the trial would proceed in Ventura County with jurors selected from Santa Barbara County[44] On December 6, 2010, Campbell denied the motion for recusal.[45]

A California appeals court affirmed on May 5, 2011, that the juvenile records of the victim, Lawrence King, will remain sealed after a lower court refused the request of the McInerney defense team for the records.[46]

After multiple delays, the trial began on July 5, 2011, with a change of venue to Chatsworth, Los Angeles, California.[3] Multiple previously scheduled dates were bypassed for various reasons, and plans or requests to move the venue or use jurors from other locations in California were not realized.[47][48]

Trial

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On the first day of trial, the half brother of McInerney, James Bing, was admonished by Judge Campbell because it was overheard that Bing went to the jury outside of the courtroom and addressed them. He said: "The fate of my brother is in your hands." Bing was then banned from the courtroom unless he is summoned to testify.[49] The prosecutor depicted McInerney as a popular teenager, who was skilled in martial arts and firing guns as well as being a white supremacist. She went on to describe King as a small guy who had often been picked on, saying that King wore high-heeled boots, makeup and jewelry along with his school uniform to school.[50] Scott Wippert, McInerney's attorney described King as the aggressor, saying he often was sexually aggressive and often made inappropriate remarks, provoking McInerney.[49]

Witnesses who were students and classmates of McInerney testified on July 7, 2011. One witness said that King told her he had changed his name to Leticia. Another witness said many students made fun of King and called him offensive names behind his back when he came to school wearing makeup and jewelry. A few of the witnesses said that they never noticed King making sexual advances toward other students but that sexual comments he made was "just messing" with McInerney.[51]

The former vice principal of E.O. Green School, Joy Epstein testified on July 11, 2011. She said she had discussed King's behavior with other school officials of the school district and they decided it was according to the constitutional rights, legitimate for King to wear what he wanted unless it violated the school dress code. Joy Epstein said high-heeled boots, makeup and jewelry were all allowed according to the Oxnard school dress policy. She said another administrator within the district said that the school must protect the students civil and equal rights.[52] Another teacher testified that pupils had told her King would seek them out and follow them into the bathroom, behavior she considered to be sexual harassment. She was told by Epstein the school could do nothing about the behavior.[13]

On July 22, 2011, the jury was shown footage of a video in which McInerney was fighting in the Ventura County Juvenile hall, where he currently lives. One of the corrections officers, testified that the defendant was a "good kid" in the honors program for good behavior and had relationships with people of different backgrounds and origins. He said that within the juvenile hall environment fighting was a routine occurrence and that McInerney was not prone to violence as the prosecution alleged.[53]

Dawn Boldrin, an English teacher had testified and said she counseled King and told him he should not wear attention-getting clothing if he did not want to receive negative attention. She also gave the teen, who was exploring his sexual and/or gender identity, a strapless, green, chiffon gown. She meant for him to wear it outside school. A photo was shown of Larry King holding up the dress and many people in the courtroom were crying. Greg King, Larry's father became upset and gathered his family to leave, but before doing so, Dawn King, Larry's mother, swore at Boldrin's 13-year old daughter and a relative. The judge later barred Dawn King from the remainder of the trial. Because the school administrators were allowing King to wear whatever he wanted as long as it did not violate the dress code, the defense was arguing that this allowed King to sexually harass McInerney.[54]

The trial ended without a verdict and was declared a mistrial by the judge, Ventura County Superior Court Judge Charles Campbell, on Thursday, September 1, 2011, after the jury reported that they were hopelessly deadlocked and unable to reach a unanimous verdict. There were eight weeks of testimony with almost 100 witnesses, and the jury had been deliberating since August 26, 2011. The jury had taken four votes and the last vote was split between seven jurors voting for voluntary manslaughter and five jurors voting for either first-degree or second-degree murder.[4][55]

Second trial

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On September 2, 2011, the district attorney's office announced that they intended to retry McInerney, and a hearing was scheduled for October 5, 2011. For the second trial, the prosecutors dropped the hate crime charge.[5][56]

On November 21, 2011 McInerney pleaded guilty to second-degree murder, voluntary manslaughter and use of a firearm. He will receive 21 years behind bars, with no credit given for time served prior to the trial and no credit will be given for good behavior. He will initially serve his sentence in a juvenile facility and then be transferred to prison upon turning 18.[57]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 Setoodeh, Ramin. Young, Gay and Murdered. Newsweek. 2008-07-19 [2008-07-23]. （原始内容存档于2008-07-22）. 
  2. ^ Youth Now. In The Life. 第17; Jillian Buckley editor; InTheLifeTV.org.季. 第6集. June 2009. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Calif. teen faces trial in gay classmate killing. Associated Press. [2011-07-07]. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 The Associated Press. Mistrial declared in CA gay student killing trial. Ventura County Star. September 1, 2011 [2011-09-01]. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 AP. Calif. teen to be retried in gay classmate killing. The Associated Press. October 5, 2011 [2011-10-07]. 
  6. ^ Dobuzinskis, Alex. Teen pleads guilty to murder charge in slaying of gay student. Reuters. November 21, 2011 [2011-11-22]. 
  7. ^ Saillant, Catherine. In plea deal, youth gets 21 years for killing gay teen. Los Angeles Times. November 21, 2011 [2011-11-22]. Brandon McInerney avoids a retrial by pleading guilty to shooting Larry King. 
  8. ^ CBS News. Calif. teen Brandon McInerney sentenced to 21 years for point-blank murder of gay classmate. CBS News. December 19, 2011 [2012-05-18]. 
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Pringle, Paul, Salliant, Catherine (March 8, 2008). "A deadly clash of emotions before Oxnard shooting." Los Angeles Times p. A1.
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Cathcart, Rebecca. Boy's Killing, Labeled a Hate Crime, Stuns a Town. The New York Times. February 23, 2008: 11. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Saillant, Catherine (February 12, 2009). "Details in gay student's slaying revealed: Ventura County prosecutors say the defendant, then 14, made death threats against Lawrence King and had experience with guns." Los Angeles Times, p. 3.
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Saillant, Catherine, Griggs, Gregory (February 14, 2008). "Student is declared brain dead; Lawrence King, 15, was shot and wounded at an Oxnard campus Tuesday. A classmate faces murder charge." Los Angeles Times. pg. B1.
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 Saillant, Catherine. Oxnard school's handling of gay student's behavior comes under scrutiny. Los Angeles Times. August 11, 2011. 
  14. ^ "GaySoFla.com remembers Lawrence "Larry" King - A Young Hero". Miami Herald. 2008-02-19 [2008-02-23]. 
  15. ^ Details in gay student's slaying are revealed in prosecution brief. Los Angeles Times. 2009-02-12 [2009-02-12]. 
  16. ^ California teen admits killing gay student, to serve 25 years. CNN. [2011-11-22]. 
  17. ^ "Boy, 15, declared brain dead after school shooting," CNN
  18. ^ "Organs harvested from Oxnard school shooting victim" San Jose Mercury News, February 15, 2008
  19. ^ Suspected school shooter's childhood marred by violence. Ventura County Star. 2008-02-24 [2008-07-25].  使用|coauthors=需要含有|author= (帮助)
  20. ^ Saillant, Catherine (February 20, 2008). "Shooting sparks call for changes; At a meeting on an Oxnard campus, parents ask why the slaying of a student in a classroom wasn't prevented", Los Angeles Times. p. B1.
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Saillant, Catherine (February 17, 2008). "1,000 gather in tribute to slain Oxnard teen; A march organized by students focuses on tolerance in the wake of the fatal shooting of an openly gay boy." Los Angeles Times, pB3.
  22. ^ Wilson, Craig (March 11, 2008). "Mom's mission: Stop hate crime; Matthew Shepard Foundation toils to keep momentum", USA Today, p. 11B.
  23. ^ "Slaying of Gay Oxnard Student Spurs Diversity Education Bill", Gay Wired, February 19, 2008
  24. ^ Ellen DeGeneres: The Hate Must Stop - TV News, Ellen DeGeneres : People.com
  25. ^ "Mike Eng announces tolerance-promoting Bill" (streaming video)
  26. ^ Students from Record 7,500 K-12 Schools Registered for Today's National Day of Silence. 2008-04-25 [2008-04-25]. 
  27. ^ Charman, Rachel. Family of Lawrence King blame death on school dress code. PinkNews.co.uk. 2008-08-15 [2008-08-18]. 
  28. ^ Ventura County Star - Change of venue in shooting considered
  29. ^ Hernandez, Raul. Judge OKs adult trial for teen suspect. Ventura County Star. 2008 [2008-07-26].  Published: July 25, 2008
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 Wilson, Kathleen. McInerney pleads not guilty, lawyer calls charges 'death sentence'. Ventura County Star. 2008 [2008-08-12].  Published: August 8, 2008
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 Hernandez, Raul. Lawyer named as a guardian for McInerney. Ventura County Star. 2008 [2008-09-28].  Published: September 24, 2008
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 Hernandez, Raul. Judge rules teen accused of murder may switch lawyers. Ventura County Star. 2008 [2008-10-16].  Published: October 15, 2008
  33. ^ Charman, Rachel. Lawrence King murder suspect fires public defenders. Pink News. 2008 [2008-10-16].  Published: October 16, 2008
  34. ^ Hernandez, Raul. "Judge OKs teen's trial in school shooting", Ventura County Star, 2008-12-09. Retrieved on 2009-01-31.
  35. ^ 35.0 35.1 Hernandez, Raul. "Judge denies request for internal standards in juvenile cases", Ventura County Star, 2008-12-29. Retrieved on 2009-01-31.
  36. ^ Hernandez, Raul. "Hearing delayed in fatal school shooting", Ventura County Star, 2009-01-27. Retrieved on 2009-01-31.
  37. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Father of teen accused in Oxnard school slaying found dead. latimes.com (Los Angeles Times). 18 March 2009 [21 March 2009]. 
  38. ^ School shooting suspect McInerney attends father's funeral. Ventura County Star. 2009-04-04 [2009-04-14]. 
  39. ^ Hernandez, Raul. McInerney pleads not guilty to all charges. Ventura County Star. August 27, 2009 [2009-08-28]. 
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 Hernandez, Raul. State Supreme Court rejects McInerney appeal to be tried in juvenile court. Ventura County Star. January 21, 2010 [2010-04-02]. 
  41. ^ Hernandez, Raul. Judge grants delay in murder trial of teen McInerney. Ventura County Star. May 7, 2010 [2010-05-16]. 
  42. ^ Ventura County Trial Of Gay Teen’s Shooting Delayed. CBS Los Angeles. [2011-03-08]. 
  43. ^ Judge Postpones McInerney Trial. Associated Press via Advocate.com. [2011-03-08]. 
  44. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Trial in Oxnard killing of gay teen will use Santa Barbara County jurors. Los Angeles Times. August 25, 2010 [2011-03-08]. 
  45. ^ Hernandez, Raul. DA removal try in McInerney case fails. Ventura County Star. May 7, 2010 [2011-03-08]. 
  46. ^ Hernandez, Raul. Brandon McInerney's lawyers lose request for records in Appeals Court. Ventura County Star. May 9, 2011 [2011-05-11]. 
  47. ^ Barlow, Zeke. McInerney trial set for Chatsworth in July. Ventura County Star. May 20, 2011 [2011-05-21]. 
  48. ^ Hernandez, Raul. Brandon McInerney murder trial delayed until June. Ventura County Star. April 25, 2011 [2011-05-11]. 
  49. ^ 49.0 49.1 Barlow, Zeke. Attorneys argue over who was the aggressor in Brandon McInerney trial. Ventura County Star. July 5, 2011. 
  50. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Slaying trial first focuses on the victim. Los Angeles Times. July 6, 2011. 
  51. ^ Barlow, Zeke. Emotional day as students testify in Brandon McInerney murder trial. Ventura County Star. July 6, 2011. 
  52. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Oxnard teen, slain in shooting, was allowed to wear women's accessories to school, official testified. Los Angeles Times. July 12, 2011. 
  53. ^ Barlow, Zeke. McInerney was not involved in gangs or supremacy groups in juvenile hall, officers testified. Ventura County Star. July 22, 2011. 
  54. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Trial of teen charged with killing gay classmate grows heated. Los Angeles Times. July 30, 2011. 
  55. ^ CNN Wire Staff. Mistrial declared in killing of gay California student. CNN. September 2, 2011 [2011-09-02]. 
  56. ^ Barlow, Zeke. DA wants to retry Brandon McInerney. Ventura County Star. September 2, 2011 [2009-09-02]. 
  57. ^ Brandon McInerney to Serve 21 Years in Gay Classmate Murder. November 21, 2011. . The details regarding where he will serve are given at the end of the video segment at the bottom of the page.
编辑

34°09′53″N 119°10′55″W / 34.16472°N 119.18194°W / 34.16472; -119.18194

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