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計量革命，又稱定量革命，在地理思想史中，為近代地理學發展的四個轉捩點之一，另三個為環境決定論、區域地理學、批判地理學。計量革命發生於1950、60年代，為地理學研究方法的快速轉變，從區域地理學進入空間科學。[1]計量革命所帶來的主要轉變為將地理學由描述性帶入實證、有規律性的來解釋地理現象。


概要與背景

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戰後的1950年代，許多大學的地理系從地質系分離出來，因為地理學被批判是非科學的，地理學家為了證明地理學非二流學科而紛紛獨立出來，例如美國的愛荷華大學、威斯康辛大學、華盛頓大學推動地理學朝向理論化、數量化的研究[2]。轉變期間自1950年代至1970年代，將數學引進地理學，將數學當作工具，運用於統計方法以及建立數學模型。

在1950年代早期，地理學有個日益增長的意識，其地理學研究的現有典範不足以解釋自然地理、經濟、社會、政治是如何產生空間組織、生態的關係，以及其結果的時間和地點。因此，一個更抽象的，地理學研究的理論取徑形成了，是一個不斷演變的探究分析方法。

這探究的分析方法使空間面向廣泛的體現在許多自然與文化背景上。這廣泛可能會使剛形成的假說、模型、理論的採取形式，以及其研究被斷定為合適的科學與否。這採用的分析方法會幫助地理學成為更有原則的科學。計量革命所帶起的地理學新典範持續至1980年代，被人本主義及結構主義取代。


1950年代的地理學危機

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在1940年代晚期至1950年代早期，地理學危機的發生有以下幾個理由：

  • The closing of many geography departments and courses in universities, e.g., the abolition of the geography program at Harvard University (a highly prestigious institution) in 1948.
  • Continuing division between human and physical geography - general talk of human geography becoming an autonomous subject.
  • Geography was seen (fairly or not) as overly descriptive and unscientific- there was, it was claimed, no explanation of why processes or phenomena occurred.
  • Geography was seen as exclusively educational - there were few if any applications of contemporary geography.
  • Continuing question of what geography is - Science, Art, Humanity or Social Science?
  • After World War II, technology became increasingly important in society, and as a result, nomothetic-based sciences gained popularity and prominence.

Debate raged predominantly (although not exclusively) in the U.S., where regional geography was the major philosophical school (European geography had never been uncomfortable with analytical methods).

All of these events presented a great threat to geography's position as an academic subject, and thus geographers began seeking new methods to counter critique. Under the (somewhat misleading) banner of the scientific method, the quantitative revolution began.

The Revolution

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The Quantitative Revolution began in the universities of Europe with the support of geographers and statisticians in both Europe and the United States. First emerging in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Quantitative Revolution responded to the rising regional geography paradigm. Under the loosely defined banner of bringing 'scientific thinking' to geography, the quantitative revolution led to an increased use of computerized statistical techniques, in particular multivariate analysis, in geographical research. The newly adopted methods reflected an array of mathematical techniques that improved precision.[來源請求]

Some of the techniques that epitomize the quantitative revolution include: [1]

The common factor, linking the above techniques, was a preference for numbers over words, plus a belief that numerical work had a superior scientific pedigree.[1]

Proponents of quantitative geography tended to present it as bringing science to geography.[來源請求] In fact, the particular contribution of the quantitative revolution was the huge faith placed in multivariate analysis and in particular methods associated with econometrics. It was also very strongly aligned with positive science,[1] and this would prove a major source of epistemological debate.[來源請求]

The overwhelming focus on statistical modelling would, eventually, be the undoing of the quantitative revolution. Many geographers became increasingly concerned that these techniques simply put a highly sophisticated technical gloss on an approach to study that was barren of fundamental theory. Other critics argued that it removed the 'human dimension' from a discipline that always prided itself on studying the human and natural world alike. As the 1970s dawned, the quantitative revolution came under direct challenge.[1]

Post-revolution Geography

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The greatest impact of the quantitative revolution was not the revolution itself but the effects that came afterwards in a form of the spread of positivist (post-positivist) thinking and counter-positivist responses.[來源請求]

The rising interest in the study of distance as a critical factor in understanding the spatial arrangement of phenomena during the revolution led to formulation of the first law of geography by Waldo Tobler. The development of spatial analysis in geography led to more applications in planning process and the further development of theoretical geography offered to geographical research a necessary theoretical background.

The greater use of computers in geography also led to many new developments in geomatics, such as the creation and application of GIS and remote sensing. These new developments allowed geographers for the first time to assess complex models on a full-scale model and over space and time. The development of geomatics led to geography being reunited, as the complexities of the human and natural environments could be assessed on new computable models. Further advances also led to a greater role of spatial statistics and modelling within geography. Eventually the quantitative revolution had its greatest impacts on the fields of physical, economic and urban geography.

The counter-positivist response from human geography was created in a form of behavioral, radical and humanistic geography[來源請求] (see the article: Critical geography).

The quantitative revolution also changed the structure of geography departments in the USA, with many physical geographers being merged with geology departments or environmental science departments, leaving the geography departments to become solely human-geography oriented. Within the UK, there was a different response to the revolution, with an increase of specialisation within the subject, and ultimately the development of systematic geography with many subfields and branches.

Additional reading

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  • Science, Philosophy and Physical Geography. Robert Inkpen, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-27954-2.
  • Explanation in Geography, David Harvey, E Arnold, ISBN 0-7131-5464-0.
  • Key Thinkers on Space and Place, Phil Hubbard, Rob Kitchin, Gill Valentine, Sage Publications Ltd, ISBN 0-7619-4963-1.
  • Social Justice and the City, Ira Katznelson (Foreword), David Harvey, Blackwell Publishers, ISBN 0-631-16476-6.
  • The Geographical Tradition: Episodes in the History of a Contested Enterprise, David N. Livingstone, Blackwell Publishers ISBN 0-631-18586-0.

See also

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References

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Template:J ^During the 1940s-1970s, it was customary to capitalize generalized concept names, especially in philosophy ("Truth, Kindness, Beauty"), plus using capital letters when naming ideologies, movements, or schools of thought. Example: "the Automobile" as a concept, versus "the automobile in a garage".
  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 "The ‘Quantitative Revolution’", GG3012(NS) Lecture 4, University of Aberdeen, 2011, webpage: AB12.
  2. ^ 施雅軒（民101）。地理思想．思想地理。高雄市：麗文文化。
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使用較快速且易控制的火盆生火，符合無痕山林的原則

無痕山林（英語：Leave No Trace，LNT）是指野外活動的一個環境倫理的概念原則，其主要目的在於保護戶外環境。 refers to a set of trail ethics and also to a nonprofit organization that teaches those principles. LNT principles are designed to promote conservation in the outdoors. The organization Leave No Trace exists to educate people on their impact on nature as well as the principles of LNT to prevent and minimize such impacts.

無痕山林有七項原則，分別為事前充分的規劃與準備、在可承受地點行走露營、適當處理垃圾維護環境、保持環境原有的風貌、減低用火對環境的衝擊、尊重野生動植物、考量其他的使用者。

發展

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二戰後的20世紀中期，經濟成長，使大眾旅遊蓬勃發達。而在1960年代，美國大眾旅遊對環境產生嚴重衝擊，造成土壤侵蝕、植被損害、動物棲息地改變等影響。[1]而無痕山林的概念自1960-70年代產生。[2]這個時期戶外活動大量增加，也產生了許多新的戶外用品，例如白瓦斯（去漬油）、人工纖維帳篷、睡墊等。使戶外活動開始有了商業利益，導致更多人進入國家公園等地方從事戶外活動。[3]在這段期間，美國林務局（英语：United States Forest Service）、美國土地管理局（英语：Bureau of Land Management）、美國國家公園管理局等政府單位開始倡導使用非機動車輛為對戶外環境影響最小的旅遊方式的概念。而野外資訊專家也進行了培訓，在許多國家公園內向遊客提倡對環境影響最小的露營方式。於1987年，三個部門合作製作了一本名為無痕山林的土地倫理的小手冊。[4]

Also in the 70s, groups such as the Sierra Club were advocating minimum impact camping techniques. The Boy Scouts of America (BSA) had been actively advocating training and implementation of Leave No Trace and outdoor ethics principals early in the 70's at such places as Philmont Scout Ranch in Northern New Mexico. A pilot program in the 80s between the BSA and the Bureau of Land Management in the High Uintas Wilderness tried to reach a wide audience.

The national education program of Leave No Trace was developed in 1990 by the United States Forest Service in conjunction with the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS). At the time the USFS also created other programs such as Smokey Bear, Woodsy Owl, and previously in 1985 the Tread Lightly! program which was geared towards motorized recreation. The Bureau of Land Management joined the program in 1993 followed by the National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1994.[4]

原則

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無痕山林提供了一個戶外活動維護環境的框架，將減少環境衝擊的方法，初步歸納出七項原則。[5][1]

事前充分的規劃與準備

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行前能事先蒐集當地相關資訊、充實戶外知識與技能，做好充分的準備，以降低危險及傷害。包括以下幾點：[1]

  • 做好登山計畫：依體能和經驗選擇合適的登山行程、蒐集步道環境及交通接駁等資訊、詳細規畫行程時間、休息及夜宿地點等。
  • 了解步道及環境特性：了解當地氣候及近日天氣，充實有毒植物、可食植物等野外求生等常識。
  • 衣物及裝備的考量：選擇舒適、安全、易排汗，以及大地色系的衣物；以及保暖衣物、登山鞋、登山杖、地圖及指北針、通訊設備、照明工具等。
  • 食物的準備：依個人體型及活動特性來攜帶適量且適當的食物，可分為行動糧以及正餐，並去除不必要的包裝，以節省空間，以及廚餘的處理等。
  • 隊伍的組成及風險管理：小隊伍為佳、降低音量以減低對環境的影響，並且需要有經驗的嚮導或領隊，也應有緊急應變的措施。

在可承受地點行走及宿營

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在適當的範圍內活動，例如步道上以及營地範圍內，以避免植被破壞及土壤侵蝕、地表流失。[1]

  • 行走：走在既有的步道上，避免走捷徑及踩踏步道邊緣，以免既有步道變寬或形成新步道。而若在沒有步道的區域行走時，盡量選擇岩石地、沙地、碎石地等較堅硬的地表行走，以降低對植被及土壤的傷害。
  • 露營：利用現成的營地，並縮小帳篷、煮食區等活動範圍，以避免植被和土壤被破壞，另外，不要影響營地周圍的樹木，例如折斷樹枝、釘釘子等行為。而若在沒有現成營地露營時，可選擇大岩石、碎石等堅硬且較不影響野生動植物的區域炊食及扎營，避開重要動植物棲地、復育區等，離開營地時盡可能將周遭環境回復原貌。

適當處理垃圾維護環境

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雖然對於長時間尺度的野外環境，垃圾的影響並不顯著，但垃圾的問題對於許多遊客而言是很重要的，因為垃圾會大幅削弱野外環境的自然度。[6]所以必須帶出所有垃圾與廚餘，並妥善的處理無法攜出的物品。[1]

  • 帶出所有攜入的物品：離開前將垃圾、廚餘等帶走，以避免野生動物食用，甚至誤食而喪命；且不要用火或掩埋等方式處理垃圾。
  • 排遺的處理方式：排遺處理不當會導致水源汙染、疾病傳播等，若沒有廁所，可選擇遠離水源、營地、步道的地方挖貓洞來排遺，利用自然的力量來分解排泄物，並將衛生紙等垃圾帶下山。
  • 物品的清洗及廢水的處理方式：遠離水源區進行清洗，且不要使用清潔劑，可以黃豆粉、苦茶粉等取代清潔劑的使用；清洗蔬果及碗盤時需以濾網過濾食物殘渣，以避免留在自然環境中，吸引昆蟲或動物。

保持環境原有的風貌

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盡可能保持原始風貌，不改變或帶走當地的自然與人文環境[1]，如在樹上釘釘子、挖排水溝、取走岩石或樹枝等。

  • 保留步道上的自然遺跡：不帶走沿途發現的樹木化石、石頭、羽毛、古物等。
  • 不要擾亂現有的景物：以攝影、速寫等方式將景物留存，不要摘花或撿石頭，以免破壞環境。
  • 不要傳播非原生物種致自然環境：保持背包、帳篷、鞋底的清潔，避免將種子、孢子等外來物種帶入自然環境中；不要放生以及帶寵物進入野外，以避免散播危害野生動植物的病菌的機會。

減低用火對環境的衝擊

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以鑒於許多野地曾因為林火而被破壞，故需提倡減低環境衝擊的用火方式。[1]

  • 爐具與代替性工具的運用：以質輕且效能高的爐具取代營火，避免留下炭火；以煤油燈、蠟燭燈籠等來代替營火，並避免將蠟油滴在自然環境中。
  • 低衝擊的生火方式：
  • 降低火對環境的衝擊：
  • 木材的挑選：
  • 火的管理：
  • 事後清理：

Respect Wildlife

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Minimizing impact on wildlife and ecosystems.

Be Considerate of Other Visitors

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Following hiking etiquette and maintaining quiet allows visitors to go through the wilderness with minimal impact on other users.

Organization

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Leave No Trace Center For Outdoor Ethics
File:Leave No Trace logo.png
成立時間1994
類型501(c)(3) Nonprofit
總部Boulder, CO, USA
Executive Director
Dana Watts
員工数17
志願者数
25,000+
網站http://www.LNT.org

The Leave No Trace program is managed by the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics, [7] formerly Leave No Trace, Inc., which is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization. The Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics is an international nonprofit organization dedicated to the responsible enjoyment and active stewardship by all people worldwide. This mission is accomplished through education, research, volunteerism and partnerships. Leave No Trace tries to build awareness, appreciation and respect for wildlands. Since its founding in 1994, the Center has provided training in every state in the U.S. and over 25 countries. There are more than 25,000 active volunteers and members who help provide training and outreach that impacts more than 22 million people annually in the U.S. alone.

Training

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A Leave No Trace Master Educator Course is typically five days in length and designed for people who are actively teaching others outdoor skills or providing recreation information to the public. The Master Educator Course provides participants with a comprehensive overview of Leave No Trace skills and ethics through practical application in a field-based setting. The first day is spent in a classroom introducing the course and schedule, providing in-depth information on the overall Leave No Trace program and the Center for Outdoor Ethics, reviewing gear, and packing. The remaining days are spent in the field on a short backcountry trip learning and practicing the principles of Leave No Trace. Each course is staffed with a minimum of two experienced outdoor professionals who are Master Educator Instructors.

The Leave No Trace Trainer Courses are two-day trainings facilitated in an outdoor setting by Master Educators. Participants learn the concepts of Leave No Trace and prepare to teach Leave No Trace curriculum in a variety of settings. Workshop topics include the underlying ethics and seven principles of Leave No Trace.

Leave No Trace Awareness Workshops are any type of formal Leave No Trace training that are one day or less in length.

Programs

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State Advocate Program

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The Leave No Trace State Advocate Program assists interested Leave No Trace educators and volunteers with their local effort to promote and teach minimum impact outdoor ethics. These active State Advocate volunteers are a key part of the Leave No Trace program because they coordinate outreach, education and training in their respective states. The State Advocates support volunteers with Leave No Trace training, increase on-the-ground awareness and attend events to further the Leave No Trace program and mission. The State Advocates have been instrumental in building communities of volunteers and educators, state-by-state.

Subaru/Leave No Trace Traveling Trainer Program

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The Subaru/Leave No Trace Traveling Trainers provide hands-on educational workshops and training. Each presentation is unique, from an hour-long workshop to a two-day Leave No Trace Trainer Course. One team travels the West coast, one team travels the East, and the Senior Team travels the entire lower 48 states. The teams visit outdoor retail stores, National and State Parks, schools, and festivals like National Public Lands Day. These trainers also provide Leave No Trace courses specific to rock-climbing, mountain biking, sea kayaking, and others.

Promoting Environmental Awareness In Kids

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The Promoting Environmental Awareness (PEAK) Program began as a partnership program between the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics and REI in 2003. The program’s curriculum centers on providing youth, age 6-12, with information about Leave No Trace through hands-on activities, referred to as “modules”. The program is presented in a “PEAK Pack,” which includes a large packet of ready-to-go activities, supporting materials and an instructional DVD. Activities can be delivered in any sequence and are designed to be 30–60 minutes lessons each. Initially, the PEAK program included four modules. Over the past five years, the program has grown to include six standard modules, a Start Card with teaching tips, an instructional DVD, additional modules (two new modules are added per year to both PEAK and Teen), a Teen Pack and both Spanish PEAK and Teen packs. The “Packing with PEAK Fund” was created to help make the Packing with PEAK program available to youth-serving organizations across the country.

Partners

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The Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics has partnerships with the National Park Service, the U.S. Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Boy Scouts of America,[8] and the US Army Corps of Engineers. An example of how this partnership works is that wilderness areas managed by the U.S. Forest Service actively promote adherence to Leave No Trace principles. The Center has also developed partnerships with other parks, municipalities, and agencies that wish to incorporate the Leave No Trace program in information provided to the public. In 2010, the Boy Scouts of America incorporated Leave No Trace into its advancement and leadership programs.[9]

The Center for Outdoor Ethics currently has three international branches in Ireland, Australia, and Canada.

See also

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References

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維基導遊上的相關旅行指南：Leave-no-trace camping
  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 無痕山林—準則與行動概念摺頁，臺灣行政院農業委員會林務局印製。
  2. ^ In Depth History of Leave No Trace. Leave No Trace. [2006-08-03]. （原始内容存档于2006-07-18）. 
  3. ^ Turner, J.M. From Woodcraft to 'Leave No Trace':Wilderness, Consumerism, and Environmentalism in Twentieth-Century America (PDF). Environmental History (Environmental History, Vol. 7, No. 3). 2002, 7 (3): 462–484. JSTOR 3985918. doi:10.2307/3985918.  已忽略未知参数|month=（建议使用|date=） (帮助)
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Marion, Jeffrey L.; Scott E. Reid. Development of the U.S. Leave No Trace Program: An Historical Perspective (PDF). U.S. Forest Service. 2001 [2012-11-09]. 
  5. ^ Seven Principles of Leave No Trace. Leave No Trace. [2006-08-03]. （原始内容存档于2006-07-18）. 
  6. ^ Pack it in, pack it out. Teaching leave no trace. U.S. Bureau of Land Management. [2007-09-11]. （原始内容存档于2007-08-14）. 
  7. ^ Center for Outdoor Ethics. Leave No Trace. [2006-08-03]. 
  8. ^ LNT Non-profit Partners
  9. ^ 2010 Rank Requirement Changes. Boy Scouts of America. 2010 [2010-07-30]. 
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   此页面介紹的是the murder of student Lawrence "Larry" King。关于other persons named Larry King，请见「Larry King (disambiguation)」。
File:LawrenceFobesKing.jpg
Lawrence "Larry" King, victim of the E.O. Green School shooting

賴瑞金之死指的是2008年2月12日，勞倫斯·賴瑞·福貝斯·金（Lawrence Larry Fobes King，1993年1月13日—2008年2月13日），一個十五歲的跨性別學生於美國加利福尼亞州奧克斯納德格林中學（英语：E.O. Green Junior High School）的槍殺案件。當時他被14歲的布蘭登·麥金尼（Brandon McInerney)射擊兩次，於兩天後宣告死亡。

此事件被新聞週刊描述為自1998年馬修·謝巴德事件以來最嚴重的性別偏見犯罪，引起美國槍枝暴力問題、性別表達、青少年性別認同（英语：Adolescent sexuality）等議題。[1][2]

數年後，經過許多延宕和場地的改變，麥金尼的第一次審判於2011年7月5日在洛杉磯查茨沃斯（英语：Chatsworth, Los Angeles）開始進行。[3] 審判於2011年9月1日結束，由於陪審團無法達成一致共識，法官查爾斯·坎貝爾（Charles Campbell）宣告無效。[4]檢察官決定尋求第二次審判，但降低仇恨犯罪的標準，由原先的一級謀殺降為二級謀殺。[5]

2011年11月21日，麥金尼以故意殺人及使用槍來認罪二級謀殺。判處21年有期徒刑，且不得假釋。[6][7]他於2011年12月19日被判刑。[8]

背景

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勞倫斯·金

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勞倫斯·賴瑞·福貝斯·金於1993年1月13日出生於[9]加利福尼亞州范朵拉的范朵拉縣醫療中心（英语：Ventura County Medical Center）。在兩歲時被格雷戈里·金（Gregory King）和唐恩·金（Dawn King）收養。金的親生父親拋棄了他因為吸毒而未能妥善照顧兒子的妻子。[1]賴瑞因注意力缺陷過動症而服藥，根據格雷戈里·金的說法，賴瑞被診斷出反應性依附症（英语：reactive attachment disorder），不能與他的監護人發展關係。而賴瑞也被迫重讀一年級。三年級時，10歲的金開始因其彰顯陰柔特質和宣告出櫃為同志而遭同學霸凌。[1]

12歲時，金因為偷竊和破壞而接受感化。2007年7月，他離開收養家庭，至一所名為卡薩帕西菲卡（Casa Pacifica）的收容中心安置[10]，因為他宣稱被養父身體虐待，而格雷戈里·金否認。[1]

The bullying continued when King transferred to E.O. Green Junior High School in the seventh grade, and intensified when he began attending school wearing women's accessories and clothing, high heels and makeup in January 2008. King's younger brother Rocky also suffered bullying because of Larry's appearance.[1] The school could not legally stop King from dressing as such because of a California anti-discrimination law that prevents gender discrimination, although teachers at the school thought that his clothing was clearly in violation of school code, which prevents students from wearing clothing considered distracting.[1] The school issued a formal notice to every teacher on January 29, 2008 via email. Written by eighth-grade assistant principal Sue Parsons, it read, in part:

We have a student on campus who has chosen to express his sexuality by wearing make-up. It is his right to do so. Some kids are finding it amusing, others are bothered by it. As long as it does not cause classroom disruptions he is within his rights. We are asking that you talk to your students about being civil and non-judgmental. They don't have to like it but they need to give him his space. We are also asking you to watch for possible problems. If you wish to talk further about it please see me or Joy Epstein.[1]

Joy Epstein was one of the school's assistant principals, and also openly lesbian. Several teachers, and King's father, accused Epstein of encouraging Larry's flamboyance as part of her "political agenda."[1] King also taunted boys in the halls, saying "I know you want me" and was known to make inappropriate comments to boys while they were changing for P.E. class.[1] However, prosecuting attorneys filed court documents that stated King was not sexually harassing other students in the weeks before the shooting. McInerney and King had been in several verbal altercations described as "acrimonious" by the prosecutor.[11]

Brandon McInerney

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Brandon David McInerney was born on January 24, 1994 in Ventura, California. His mother Kendra had a criminal history and was addicted to methamphetamine.[1][9] In 1993, Kendra accused her husband William of shooting her in the arm with a .45-caliber pistol.[1] In another incident, William McInerney choked his wife almost to unconsciousness after she accused him of stealing ADHD medication from her older son.[12] He pleaded no contest and served ten days in jail and 36 months probation on a charge of domestic violence. Between August 2000 and February 2001, William McInerney had contacted Child Protective Services at least five times about concerns of his son living with his mother.[9] In 2001, he filed a restraining order against Kendra, and in 2004, Brandon was placed in the custody of his father, as his mother had entered a drug rehabilitation program.[1]

The shooting

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In July 2008, Newsweek reported that a day or two before the shooting, King walked onto the basketball court in the middle of a game and asked McInerney to be his Valentine in front of the team who then made fun of McInerney.[1] Just after lunchtime on February 11, King passed McInerney in a corridor and called out, "Love you baby". Later that day King was seen "parading" back and forth in high-heeled boots and makeup in front of McInerney. According to a teacher, a group of boys was laughing at McInerney who was getting visibly upset and assistant principal Joy Epstein, noticing McInerney's reaction, wagged her finger at him.[13] When McInerney endured teasing because of the incident, he attempted to recruit other students to assault King but no one expressed interest. He then told one of King's friends to say goodbye to him "because she would never see him [King] again".[11]

On the morning of February 12, 2008, McInerney was witnessed repeatedly looking at King during a class in a computer laboratory. At approximately 8:15 a.m local time, McInerney drew from his backpack a .22-caliber revolver belonging to relatives and shot King twice in the back of the head.[14][15][16] Following the shooting, McInerney tossed the handgun on the floor and walked from the classroom. He was apprehended by police about seven minutes later and five blocks away from the school campus.[1][12]

King was transported to St. John's Regional Medical Center where he was listed in serious condition. He was declared brain dead on February 13 but was kept on life support for two days so that his organs could be donated.[17][18]

Since McInerney has refused to speak to investigators, the motive for the shooting remains unclear.[19] According to Police Chief John Crombach, "It's pretty clear our suspect was focused on his victim and what he planned to do".[20]

Response

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Vigils and marches were organized across the United States following King's death.[21] Sympathies for King have been expressed by numerous people including Judy Shepard,[22] Human Rights Campaign president Joe Solmonese,[23] Senator Hillary Clinton and television host Ellen DeGeneres.[24] A thousand students in the Hueneme School District, where E.O. Green is located, marched to pay tribute to King on February 16, 2008, four days after the shooting.[21]

A new diversity education bill was introduced on behalf of King by California Assemblyperson Mike Eng, saying, "We need to teach young people that there's a curriculum called tolerance education that should be in every school. We should teach young people that diversity is not something to be assaulted, but diversity is something that needs to be embraced because diversity makes California the great state that it is." The bill would require mandatory classes on diversity and tolerance in California school districts.[25]

A local vigil in Ventura, California was organized one year after King's death.[10] The Day of Silence for 2008, which is intended to protest LGBT harassment and occurred on April 25, was specially dedicated to King.[26] King's father Greg is unconvinced his adoptive son was gay as Larry had only recently told him that he was actually bisexual. Greg believes that Larry was sexually harassing McInerney, and has expressed concern that Larry is being made a poster child for gay rights issues.[1]

Teachers also showed sympathy for McInerney. "We failed Brandon," a teacher said. "We didn't know the bullying was coming from the other side—Larry was pushing as hard as he could, because he liked the attention." Hundreds of children from the school have signed a petition requesting that McInerney be tried as a juvenile.[1]

Criticism of the school

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In August 2008, King's family filed a claim against E.O. Green Junior High School at Ventura County Superior Court, alleging that the school's allowing King to wear makeup and feminine clothing was a factor leading to his death.[27] According to the California Attorney General's Office, however, the school could not legally have stopped King from wearing girls' clothes because state law prevents gender discrimination.[1]

According to a Newsweek article published on July 19, 2008, some teachers at E.O. Green also allege that assistant principal Joy Epstein was "encouraging King's flamboyance to help further an 'agenda' ".[1] When Epstein was later promoted to principal at another local public school, King's father described it as a "slap in the face of my family". The superintendent, Jerry Dannenberg, stated that the promotion was given because "she was the most qualified person for the new principal job".[1]

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In February 2008, McInerney's lawyer, William Quest, was considering a change of venue.[28] On July 24, 2008, Judge Douglas Daily of the Ventura County Superior Court ruled that McInerney would stand trial as an adult,[29] with the decision being appealed.[30]

On August 7, 2008, in the same court, McInerney pleaded not guilty to premeditated murder and a hate crime. A preliminary hearing was set for September 23, 2008, which had been rescheduled for October 14, 2008.[30][31]

On September 23, 2008, the court appointed Willard Wiksell, a lawyer from Ventura, guardian ad litem for McInerney. Previously, McInerney's family took steps to fire his lawyer, William Quest, of the Public Defenders Office and hire the United Defense Group, a criminal defense law firm from Los Angeles. However, the Public Defenders Office filed a petition stating that the United Defense Group might not have McInerney's best interests in mind.[31]

On October 14, 2008, after the court received a report from the appointed guardian ad litem, and the court determined that the defendant had not been coerced into changing representation and knew what he was doing, the Ventura County Superior Court allowed McInerney to fire his Public Defender, William Quest, and the Public Defenders Office, and hire the United Defense Group together with attorney Robyn Bramson as his attorneys.[32][33] The court also denied a motion to gag the defendant's former representatives from the Public Defenders Office from speaking about the case, especially to the media.[32]

On December 8, 2008, Ventura County Superior Court ruled that McInerney, after being evaluated by a psychiatrist and a psychologist, was competent to stand trial. That same day, Scott S. Wippert, of the United Defense Group, filed a legal motion for discovery, asking the court to order the district attorney to provide documents to uncover whether prosecutors exercised discretion in sending McInerney's case to the adult court system.[34] On December 29, 2008, Judge Rebecca Riley denied the motion, stating that there was no evidence of abuse of discretion in transferring McInerney from juvenile to adult court.[35]

On January 26, 2009, the preliminary hearing was postponed until March 17,[36] to give McInerney's lawyers time to appeal Judge Riley's rejection of the December motion for discovery.[35] On March 18, 2009, the hearing was once again postponed, when William McInerney, the father of Brandon, was found dead in his living room in the Silver Strand area near Oxnard after he sustained an accidental head injury from a fall.[37] Brandon McInerney was granted Judge Riley's permission to leave the juvenile detention facility and attend his father's funeral.[38]

On August 27, 2009, at his arraignment in Ventura County Superior Court, McInerney pleaded not guilty to all charges. The judge, Bruce Young, set the pretrial hearing date for October 23, 2009, and a trial start date for December 1, 2009.[39]

On September 1, 2009, Ventura County Superior Court Judge Kevin DeNoce ruled that the addition of a lying-in-wait allegation to the list of charges was acceptable. The addition of this allegation would automatically mean that the case must be heard in an adult court. The addition was petitioned, and in November the Ventura 2nd District Appellate Court denied the request to overturn the earlier ruling, finding that the District Attorney’s Office did not act vindictively in adding the lying-in-wait allegation to the murder charge.[40]

On January 21, 2010, the State Supreme Court rejected the petition to overturn the earlier ruling by the Ventura County Superior Court judge.[40]

After a postponement from May 14, 2010, McInerney’s trial was set to commence on July 14, 2010, in Ventura County Superior Court,[41] but was again postponed. A hearing was slated for April 4, 2011, to determine whether McInerney's attorneys would be ready for a trial beginning on May 2.[42] Previous postponements followed motions from defense attorneys requesting recusal of the district attorney, a change of venue, and more time for fact-finding.[43] In August 2010, Ventura County Superior Court Judge Charles Campbell ruled that the trial would proceed in Ventura County with jurors selected from Santa Barbara County[44] On December 6, 2010, Campbell denied the motion for recusal.[45]

A California appeals court affirmed on May 5, 2011, that the juvenile records of the victim, Lawrence King, will remain sealed after a lower court refused the request of the McInerney defense team for the records.[46]

After multiple delays, the trial began on July 5, 2011, with a change of venue to Chatsworth, Los Angeles, California.[3] Multiple previously scheduled dates were bypassed for various reasons, and plans or requests to move the venue or use jurors from other locations in California were not realized.[47][48]

Trial

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On the first day of trial, the half brother of McInerney, James Bing, was admonished by Judge Campbell because it was overheard that Bing went to the jury outside of the courtroom and addressed them. He said: "The fate of my brother is in your hands." Bing was then banned from the courtroom unless he is summoned to testify.[49] The prosecutor depicted McInerney as a popular teenager, who was skilled in martial arts and firing guns as well as being a white supremacist. She went on to describe King as a small guy who had often been picked on, saying that King wore high-heeled boots, makeup and jewelry along with his school uniform to school.[50] Scott Wippert, McInerney's attorney described King as the aggressor, saying he often was sexually aggressive and often made inappropriate remarks, provoking McInerney.[49]

Witnesses who were students and classmates of McInerney testified on July 7, 2011. One witness said that King told her he had changed his name to Leticia. Another witness said many students made fun of King and called him offensive names behind his back when he came to school wearing makeup and jewelry. A few of the witnesses said that they never noticed King making sexual advances toward other students but that sexual comments he made was "just messing" with McInerney.[51]

The former vice principal of E.O. Green School, Joy Epstein testified on July 11, 2011. She said she had discussed King's behavior with other school officials of the school district and they decided it was according to the constitutional rights, legitimate for King to wear what he wanted unless it violated the school dress code. Joy Epstein said high-heeled boots, makeup and jewelry were all allowed according to the Oxnard school dress policy. She said another administrator within the district said that the school must protect the students civil and equal rights.[52] Another teacher testified that pupils had told her King would seek them out and follow them into the bathroom, behavior she considered to be sexual harassment. She was told by Epstein the school could do nothing about the behavior.[13]

On July 22, 2011, the jury was shown footage of a video in which McInerney was fighting in the Ventura County Juvenile hall, where he currently lives. One of the corrections officers, testified that the defendant was a "good kid" in the honors program for good behavior and had relationships with people of different backgrounds and origins. He said that within the juvenile hall environment fighting was a routine occurrence and that McInerney was not prone to violence as the prosecution alleged.[53]

Dawn Boldrin, an English teacher had testified and said she counseled King and told him he should not wear attention-getting clothing if he did not want to receive negative attention. She also gave the teen, who was exploring his sexual and/or gender identity, a strapless, green, chiffon gown. She meant for him to wear it outside school. A photo was shown of Larry King holding up the dress and many people in the courtroom were crying. Greg King, Larry's father became upset and gathered his family to leave, but before doing so, Dawn King, Larry's mother, swore at Boldrin's 13-year old daughter and a relative. The judge later barred Dawn King from the remainder of the trial. Because the school administrators were allowing King to wear whatever he wanted as long as it did not violate the dress code, the defense was arguing that this allowed King to sexually harass McInerney.[54]

The trial ended without a verdict and was declared a mistrial by the judge, Ventura County Superior Court Judge Charles Campbell, on Thursday, September 1, 2011, after the jury reported that they were hopelessly deadlocked and unable to reach a unanimous verdict. There were eight weeks of testimony with almost 100 witnesses, and the jury had been deliberating since August 26, 2011. The jury had taken four votes and the last vote was split between seven jurors voting for voluntary manslaughter and five jurors voting for either first-degree or second-degree murder.[4][55]

Second trial

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On September 2, 2011, the district attorney's office announced that they intended to retry McInerney, and a hearing was scheduled for October 5, 2011. For the second trial, the prosecutors dropped the hate crime charge.[5][56]

On November 21, 2011 McInerney pleaded guilty to second-degree murder, voluntary manslaughter and use of a firearm. He will receive 21 years behind bars, with no credit given for time served prior to the trial and no credit will be given for good behavior. He will initially serve his sentence in a juvenile facility and then be transferred to prison upon turning 18.[57]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 Setoodeh, Ramin. Young, Gay and Murdered. Newsweek. 2008-07-19 [2008-07-23]. （原始内容存档于2008-07-22）. 
  2. ^ Youth Now. In The Life. 第17; Jillian Buckley editor; InTheLifeTV.org.季. 第6集. June 2009. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Calif. teen faces trial in gay classmate killing. Associated Press. [2011-07-07]. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 The Associated Press. Mistrial declared in CA gay student killing trial. Ventura County Star. September 1, 2011 [2011-09-01]. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 AP. Calif. teen to be retried in gay classmate killing. The Associated Press. October 5, 2011 [2011-10-07]. 
  6. ^ Dobuzinskis, Alex. Teen pleads guilty to murder charge in slaying of gay student. Reuters. November 21, 2011 [2011-11-22]. 
  7. ^ Saillant, Catherine. In plea deal, youth gets 21 years for killing gay teen. Los Angeles Times. November 21, 2011 [2011-11-22]. Brandon McInerney avoids a retrial by pleading guilty to shooting Larry King. 
  8. ^ CBS News. Calif. teen Brandon McInerney sentenced to 21 years for point-blank murder of gay classmate. CBS News. December 19, 2011 [2012-05-18]. 
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Pringle, Paul, Salliant, Catherine (March 8, 2008). "A deadly clash of emotions before Oxnard shooting." Los Angeles Times p. A1.
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Cathcart, Rebecca. Boy's Killing, Labeled a Hate Crime, Stuns a Town. The New York Times. February 23, 2008: 11. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Saillant, Catherine (February 12, 2009). "Details in gay student's slaying revealed: Ventura County prosecutors say the defendant, then 14, made death threats against Lawrence King and had experience with guns." Los Angeles Times, p. 3.
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Saillant, Catherine, Griggs, Gregory (February 14, 2008). "Student is declared brain dead; Lawrence King, 15, was shot and wounded at an Oxnard campus Tuesday. A classmate faces murder charge." Los Angeles Times. pg. B1.
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 Saillant, Catherine. Oxnard school's handling of gay student's behavior comes under scrutiny. Los Angeles Times. August 11, 2011. 
  14. ^ "GaySoFla.com remembers Lawrence "Larry" King - A Young Hero". Miami Herald. 2008-02-19 [2008-02-23]. 
  15. ^ Details in gay student's slaying are revealed in prosecution brief. Los Angeles Times. 2009-02-12 [2009-02-12]. 
  16. ^ California teen admits killing gay student, to serve 25 years. CNN. [2011-11-22]. 
  17. ^ "Boy, 15, declared brain dead after school shooting," CNN
  18. ^ "Organs harvested from Oxnard school shooting victim" San Jose Mercury News, February 15, 2008
  19. ^ Suspected school shooter's childhood marred by violence. Ventura County Star. 2008-02-24 [2008-07-25].  使用|coauthors=需要含有|author= (帮助)
  20. ^ Saillant, Catherine (February 20, 2008). "Shooting sparks call for changes; At a meeting on an Oxnard campus, parents ask why the slaying of a student in a classroom wasn't prevented", Los Angeles Times. p. B1.
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Saillant, Catherine (February 17, 2008). "1,000 gather in tribute to slain Oxnard teen; A march organized by students focuses on tolerance in the wake of the fatal shooting of an openly gay boy." Los Angeles Times, pB3.
  22. ^ Wilson, Craig (March 11, 2008). "Mom's mission: Stop hate crime; Matthew Shepard Foundation toils to keep momentum", USA Today, p. 11B.
  23. ^ "Slaying of Gay Oxnard Student Spurs Diversity Education Bill", Gay Wired, February 19, 2008
  24. ^ Ellen DeGeneres: The Hate Must Stop - TV News, Ellen DeGeneres : People.com
  25. ^ "Mike Eng announces tolerance-promoting Bill" (streaming video)
  26. ^ Students from Record 7,500 K-12 Schools Registered for Today's National Day of Silence. 2008-04-25 [2008-04-25]. 
  27. ^ Charman, Rachel. Family of Lawrence King blame death on school dress code. PinkNews.co.uk. 2008-08-15 [2008-08-18]. 
  28. ^ Ventura County Star - Change of venue in shooting considered
  29. ^ Hernandez, Raul. Judge OKs adult trial for teen suspect. Ventura County Star. 2008 [2008-07-26].  Published: July 25, 2008
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 Wilson, Kathleen. McInerney pleads not guilty, lawyer calls charges 'death sentence'. Ventura County Star. 2008 [2008-08-12].  Published: August 8, 2008
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 Hernandez, Raul. Lawyer named as a guardian for McInerney. Ventura County Star. 2008 [2008-09-28].  Published: September 24, 2008
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 Hernandez, Raul. Judge rules teen accused of murder may switch lawyers. Ventura County Star. 2008 [2008-10-16].  Published: October 15, 2008
  33. ^ Charman, Rachel. Lawrence King murder suspect fires public defenders. Pink News. 2008 [2008-10-16].  Published: October 16, 2008
  34. ^ Hernandez, Raul. "Judge OKs teen's trial in school shooting", Ventura County Star, 2008-12-09. Retrieved on 2009-01-31.
  35. ^ 35.0 35.1 Hernandez, Raul. "Judge denies request for internal standards in juvenile cases", Ventura County Star, 2008-12-29. Retrieved on 2009-01-31.
  36. ^ Hernandez, Raul. "Hearing delayed in fatal school shooting", Ventura County Star, 2009-01-27. Retrieved on 2009-01-31.
  37. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Father of teen accused in Oxnard school slaying found dead. latimes.com (Los Angeles Times). 18 March 2009 [21 March 2009]. 
  38. ^ School shooting suspect McInerney attends father's funeral. Ventura County Star. 2009-04-04 [2009-04-14]. 
  39. ^ Hernandez, Raul. McInerney pleads not guilty to all charges. Ventura County Star. August 27, 2009 [2009-08-28]. 
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 Hernandez, Raul. State Supreme Court rejects McInerney appeal to be tried in juvenile court. Ventura County Star. January 21, 2010 [2010-04-02]. 
  41. ^ Hernandez, Raul. Judge grants delay in murder trial of teen McInerney. Ventura County Star. May 7, 2010 [2010-05-16]. 
  42. ^ Ventura County Trial Of Gay Teen’s Shooting Delayed. CBS Los Angeles. [2011-03-08]. 
  43. ^ Judge Postpones McInerney Trial. Associated Press via Advocate.com. [2011-03-08]. 
  44. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Trial in Oxnard killing of gay teen will use Santa Barbara County jurors. Los Angeles Times. August 25, 2010 [2011-03-08]. 
  45. ^ Hernandez, Raul. DA removal try in McInerney case fails. Ventura County Star. May 7, 2010 [2011-03-08]. 
  46. ^ Hernandez, Raul. Brandon McInerney's lawyers lose request for records in Appeals Court. Ventura County Star. May 9, 2011 [2011-05-11]. 
  47. ^ Barlow, Zeke. McInerney trial set for Chatsworth in July. Ventura County Star. May 20, 2011 [2011-05-21]. 
  48. ^ Hernandez, Raul. Brandon McInerney murder trial delayed until June. Ventura County Star. April 25, 2011 [2011-05-11]. 
  49. ^ 49.0 49.1 Barlow, Zeke. Attorneys argue over who was the aggressor in Brandon McInerney trial. Ventura County Star. July 5, 2011. 
  50. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Slaying trial first focuses on the victim. Los Angeles Times. July 6, 2011. 
  51. ^ Barlow, Zeke. Emotional day as students testify in Brandon McInerney murder trial. Ventura County Star. July 6, 2011. 
  52. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Oxnard teen, slain in shooting, was allowed to wear women's accessories to school, official testified. Los Angeles Times. July 12, 2011. 
  53. ^ Barlow, Zeke. McInerney was not involved in gangs or supremacy groups in juvenile hall, officers testified. Ventura County Star. July 22, 2011. 
  54. ^ Saillant, Catherine. Trial of teen charged with killing gay classmate grows heated. Los Angeles Times. July 30, 2011. 
  55. ^ CNN Wire Staff. Mistrial declared in killing of gay California student. CNN. September 2, 2011 [2011-09-02]. 
  56. ^ Barlow, Zeke. DA wants to retry Brandon McInerney. Ventura County Star. September 2, 2011 [2009-09-02]. 
  57. ^ Brandon McInerney to Serve 21 Years in Gay Classmate Murder. November 21, 2011. . The details regarding where he will serve are given at the end of the video segment at the bottom of the page.
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34°09′53″N 119°10′55″W / 34.16472°N 119.18194°W / 34.16472; -119.18194

警告：默认排序键“King, Larry”覆盖了之前的默认排序键“Quantitative Revolution”。

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