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年轻女性的木乃伊画像，2世纪，巴黎罗浮宫。

法尤姆木乃伊画像（Fayum mummy portraits）是一个现代术语，用来表示一种在科普特时期（Coptic period），覆盖于木乃伊的木板上的写实绘画画像。在分类上属于传统的镶版画，是最受到关注的古典时期艺术形式之一。事实上，法尤姆画像是同时期唯一仅存的大型人型艺术。

木乃伊画像的出土处遍布整个埃及，但最多的地方是法尤姆盆地，尤其是在哈瓦拉及安提诺波里斯，因此“法尤姆画像”这个常见的名词，一般是从字面上来描述，而非从地理上。虽然在法老时期就有绘画的木乃伊盒，而法尤姆木乃伊画像是更新的作法，属于罗马占领埃及的科普特时期产物。[1]

木乃伊画像起源于罗马时期，从西元前1世纪晚期或者西元1世纪早期开始。尚不清楚这些创作于何时停止，但最近的研究认为到3世纪中期才终止。这些画像是极少数现存高知名度的古典时期镶版画中，为数最庞大的一群。后来在后古典时期演变为拜占庭及西方艺术的起源，包含当地在埃及的科普特艺术。

画像覆盖在要埋葬的木乃伊的脸部。现存的出土物说明了画像是安附在用来包裹尸体的捆绑麻布上。现在几乎所有的画像都已和木乃伊分离了。[2] 这些画像通常描绘一个人物正面的的脸部，亦或包含上半身。在艺术方面，画的风格明显地源自希腊-罗马的成分较多，而源自埃及的较少。[3]

画像的材质分为两种，透过技术可以分辨出来：一种是蜡画，另一种是蛋彩画，蜡画的品质通常较蛋彩画高。

现今将近有900幅木乃伊画像出土。[4]主要在法尤姆的墓穴中被发现。由于埃及干热的气候，画像几乎都保存的非常好，通常还留著鲜艳的色彩，似乎没有因为时间而褪色。

研究的历史

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想像中但不真实的木乃伊发现过程的描绘，作者皮耶特罗•德拉•瓦雷（Pietro Della Valle）。

19世纪前

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义大利探险家皮耶特罗•德拉•瓦雷，在1615年前往萨卡拉-孟菲斯的旅行中，成为第一个发现及描述木乃伊画像的欧洲人。他将一些带有画像的木乃伊运回欧洲，现存放于阿尔伯提努姆艺术馆（德累斯顿艺术收藏机构）。[5]

19世纪的收藏家

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虽然人们对古埃及的兴趣在古埃及之后是稳定的增长的，但是对木乃伊画像的更进一步发现在19世纪早期之前并非热门的议题，首次新发现的出处并不清楚，可能也来自萨卡拉或者底比斯。1820年，米诺图里男爵（Baron of Minotuli）获得数个木乃伊画像要交给一位德国收藏家，但这些木乃伊画像与其他一整艘船货的埃及工艺品一起沉没于北海之中。1827年，莱昂•德•拉沃尔德（Léon de Laborde）买了两幅据称在孟菲斯发现的画像回欧洲，一幅现在可以在罗浮宫看到，另一幅在大英博物馆。让-弗朗索瓦•商博良组成的1828年-1829年的探险队的其中一员伊波利托•罗塞里尼，买了更深层的画像回到佛罗伦斯。德•拉沃尔德与伊波利托•罗塞里尼两者的例子由于非常相似而被认为是同一个根据。[5] 在1820年代期间，英国的驻埃及领事亨利•绍特遣送数个更深层的画像到巴黎与伦敦。其中有些长期被认为是底比斯执政官波利欧斯•索特（一个以编写历史闻名的历史人物）的家族画像，但这已经被证明是错误的。[5]

 
盖耶（Gayet）的木乃伊画像单一标本，来自安提诺波里斯，可以从中得知它的考古背景。这幅上了浓烈金色的画像于1905年到1906年的冬季被发现，1907年卖到柏林。柏林，埃及博物馆。

再一次，在更多的木乃伊画像重见天日之前，间隔了一段长时期的消沉。1887年，丹尼尔•马利•富凯（Daniel Marie Fouquet）听说一个洞穴发现了许多的木乃伊画像。几天之后他前往勘察这些画像，但他太晚抵达了，发现者为了度过之前三天寒冷的沙漠夜晚，把绘有画像的木板当作柴火烧掉了。富凯得到原本五十五幅画像中剩下的两幅。然而这次发现的确切地点并不清楚，可能的来源是（er-Rubayat）。[5] 在同一个地点，富凯勘察后的没多久，维也纳艺术商人西奥多•葛拉夫（Theodor Graf）找到数个更深层的画像，他想要尽可能的赚取利益。于是接触了以莱比锡为根据地的知名埃及学家格奥尔格•埃伯斯来出版他的发现。他印制了展示会的传单，发送到全欧洲以宣传他的个人发现。虽然这些画像的考古发现经过所知甚少，葛拉夫竭尽所能的透过与其它的艺术品（主要是钱币的绘画）比拟，将画像描述成知名的托勒密法老王的画像。这些推想全部都没有受到争论，也不具说服力，但使他增加许多的关注，很重要的是因为他得到知名学者如鲁道夫•菲尔绍的背书。因此，木乃伊画像成为许多关注的焦点。[6] 到了19世纪晚期，木乃伊画像非常独特的艺术性使得它们成为受欢迎的收藏品，在全世界的艺术贸易中散布开来。

考古学研究：弗林德斯•彼特利

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同一时期，更多科学与画像的接触也开始进行。18897年，英国考古学家弗林德斯•彼特利，展开在哈瓦拉的挖掘工作。在他第一年的挖掘中，发现了一个罗马的墓穴藏有81具带有画像的木乃伊。在一次的展览会上，吸引了大批的群众。随后几年，彼特利持续在同一地点挖掘，但现在遭受到来自一位德国人及一位埃及商人的竞争。彼特利在1910年到1911年的冬季回国，这段期间总共挖到70具带有画像的木乃伊，其中有些的保存情形非常差。[7] 凭著非常少量的例外完好画像，彼特利的研究仍旧是到目前唯一有系统的挖掘及正确公开的木乃伊画像样本。虽然已公开的研究并非完全都被现代标准接受，但这些画像仍旧是木乃伊画像发现过程的最重要来源。

19世纪晚期与20世纪早期的收藏家

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1892年，德国考古学家冯•考夫曼（von Kaufmann）发现了所谓的“艾琳墓穴”，内部藏有三幅木乃伊画像；是今日最知名的其中之一。其他重要的来源在如安提诺波里斯及阿卡赫米姆等地发现。法国考古学家阿尔伯•盖耶（Albert Gayet）在安提诺波里斯工作，并发现了许多相关的材料，但他的研究，如同许多其他当代的研究一样，无法符合现代的标准。他的文件是不完整的，许多他的发现没有背景资料。

博物馆

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今日，木乃伊画像在全世界重要的考古博物馆被当作代表展品。世界各地许多博物馆都有良好的法尤姆木乃伊画像标本在展览中，尤其是大英博物馆、苏格兰皇家博物馆、纽约的大都会艺术博物馆以及巴黎的罗浮宫。[8] 由于这些画像几乎都是经由不正当及非专业的方式收入各个博物馆，事实上全都非经由考古挖掘，造成一再地降低这些画像所蕴含的考古品质及历史文化资讯。因此，这些画像整体的意义及它们独特的诠释依旧存在极高的争议。[8]

材质与技术

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连著木乃伊包裹麻布的画像细节，大都会艺术博物馆。此画像由弗林德斯•彼特利于1911年在一处墓葬室内发现。

大多数的绘画整齐一致的表现出一位单一人物的画像，脸部及表情朝向观画者，通常从一个可以稍微看到全脸的角度描绘。人物呈现出半身画搭配单一色调的背景，有些例子的背景含有装饰。画中的主角为男女皆有，年龄下至幼童，上至老人。

绘画的表面

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大多数保存的木乃伊画像是在木板或镶板上作画的，由不同种类的进口硬木制成，包含橡树、椴树、悬铃木、雪松、柏木、榕树及柑橘树。[9]树木先被裁切成薄的矩形木板再经过磨平。完成的画板会被放入包裹的布层来盖住身体，再用裹身的麻布围绕营造出窗户的效果，仿佛可以从中一窥逝者的面貌。有时候画像是直接画在包裹木乃伊用的帆布或麻布上（木乃伊盒绘画）。

绘画技术

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有时候木头表面最初要先上一层石膏再来作画。可以从某些例子的表层得知绘画的准备动作。共有两种绘画的技术被使用到：蜡画及以蛋液为基础的蛋彩画。蜡画的画面较引人注目，因为生动和丰富的色彩形成强烈的对比，以及比较大面积的刷笔方式，形成一种“印象派”的效果。蛋彩画拥有较细致的色调层次感及较偏白垩色的色系，给予人一种更拘谨的表象。[8] 在某些例子中，会使用金箔来描绘珠宝首饰及花圈。也有些例子使用了混合的技术或变形的主要技术。

法尤姆画像展现了广泛的画家专业技术，以及显示栩栩如生画面的技巧。画像的自然性经常展现在组织结构的知识，及借由光线和阴影所形成的造型技巧，使的大多数的画像拥有三维的画面。定向光源指引所形成的阴影和亮点增强了渐层的形体色调。

绘画的主题及社会背景

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法尤姆的人民

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在希腊罗马的统治之下，埃及建立了数个希腊人的据点，大多数集中于亚历山卓，但也有少数其他的城市，希腊移民者与大约七百万到一千万的本土埃及人比邻而居。[10]法尤姆最早的希腊居民是托勒密王朝国王在新开拓的土地上安置的退役军人和精英军事官员。[11][12]土生的埃及人也从国家的四面八方移入法尤姆 ，尤其是从尼罗河三角洲、上埃及、俄克喜林库斯及孟菲斯，从个人姓名、本土宗教及复原的莎草纸中得知，他们从事进行土地开垦的劳力工作。[13]托勒密时期估计最多有百分之30的法尤姆人口为希腊人，以及其他的土生埃及人。 [14]在罗马时期，多数的希腊人口由希腊化的埃及人或是希腊埃及混血的人民组成。[15]

然而一般相信希腊移民者作为代表埃及的主体，[16][17] 法尤姆画像反而反映出城市中主流的埃及文化与上层少数的精英希腊文化之间复杂的融合。[18] 根据苏珊•沃克（Susan Walker）的说法，托勒密时期初期的希腊移民者娶本土的埃及女性并接受埃及的宗教信仰，而到了罗马时期，他们的后代被罗马的统治者视为土生的埃及人，尽管他们自认为自己属于希腊人。[19] 罗马时期法尤姆木乃伊的牙体形态学（dental morphology）[20]也与早期埃及居民的做过比较，并且发现跟希腊及其他欧洲族群相比，“更加接近”古埃及人的族群。[21]

画中人物的年龄概况

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大部分的画像描绘的逝者为相对年轻的年纪，并且很多为儿童。根据沃克（2000年）的说法，“电脑断层扫描扫描了全部完整的木乃伊样本，显露出木乃伊与画像之间年龄的一致性，以及在一些适当的案例中包含性别的一致性。”沃克推论年龄的分布反映出该时期对寿命的预期程度低。通常相信蜡制画像完成于人们独居的时期并展示在他们的家中，一种属于希腊艺术传统的习俗，[22] 但是这个观点在电脑断层扫描技术扫描法尤姆木乃伊提出证据之后不再被广泛的支持，罗马人口普查的复原也是相同。另外，一些画像是直接作画于棺材之上；例如在裹尸麻布或其他部份之上。

 
背著剑带的男子，大英博物馆。

社会地位

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画像中的主角显然属于军事相关人员的富裕上层阶级、城市的公务员及重要的宗教人士。并非每个人都能够拥有一个木乃伊画像；许多木乃伊被发现没有使用画像。弗林德斯•彼特利说明他挖掘到的木乃伊只有百分之一到二的比例有用画像装饰。[23] 虽然无法得知木乃伊画像的实际比例，但是可以假设物质造成比劳动还高的成本，在古典时代，画家被视为工匠而不是艺术家。[23]在这一方面，艾琳墓穴的情形引起众人的关注。 墓穴中含有四具木乃伊：一具是艾琳，两具是她的子女及一具她的丈夫。不像艾琳及她的子女，艾琳的丈夫并没有画像的装饰，而是配戴了一个镀金的立体面具。或许石膏面具是他们负担不起的首选。

目前尚不清楚这些绘画是否起源自埃及、希腊或是罗马，也不清楚这些画像是否普遍地被各个族群使用。其中某些画中主角的名字可从画上得铭刻得知，他们是属于埃及、希腊及罗马血统。发型及服饰完全受到罗马流行的影响。女性及幼童通常描绘成穿戴贵重的首饰及穿著品质好的衣服，男性则常常穿著特殊而精致的服装。以希腊文铭刻的名字相对而言较常见，有些铭刻包含职业名称。目前并不明白这些职业的铭刻是否全部皆反映真实，或者它们是否可能表达理想中的情形或志向而非真正的情况。[24] 一个单独的铭刻事例被认为真正明确地表明了死者的职业（一位船东）。一具名叫赫米欧妮（Hermione）的女性木乃伊也包含一个词“语法”（grammatike，希腊文：γραμματική）。有很长一段时间，人们假设这代表她的职业是一名教师（因此，弗林德斯•彼特利将此画像捐赠给剑桥的剑桥大学格顿学院，英国第一所寄宿的女子大学学院），但在今日，人们推估这个词指的是她的教育水准。一些男性的画像展现出剑带或者甚至剑柄，一般推测他们是罗马军队的成员。[25]

文化-历史背景

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丧葬习俗的改变

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托勒密埃及的丧葬习俗大部分遵循古老的传统。上层阶级成员的遗体属于木乃伊化的，配有装饰过的棺材及用来覆盖头部的木乃伊面具。在希腊人进入埃及的时期大致上沿用他们自己的习俗。亚历山卓及其他地点有证据指出他们实行希腊的火葬传统。这大致上反映了希腊化埃及的普遍情形，虽然统治者宣称自己为法老，然而除此之外却生活在一个全然的希腊文化世界，加上只有非常稀少的的本土文化元素。相反地，在亚历山大的征服之后，埃及人对支配著东地中海的希腊文化的兴趣只有得到缓慢的发展。罗马人来到之后，这种情势的发生大幅的改变。几个世代之内，埃及全部的文化元素从日常生活中消失殆尽。像卡拉尼斯或奥克西林库斯这样的城市为主要地希腊-罗马据点。有清楚的证据证明这是在罗马的埃及统治阶级下，不同种族融合的结果。[26]

宗教连续性

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Only in the sphere of religion is there evidence for a continuation of Egyptian traditions. Egyptian temples were erected as late as the 2nd century. In terms of burial habits, Egyptian and Hellenistic elements now mixed. Coffins became increasingly unpopular and went entirely out of use by the 2nd century. On contrast, mummification appears to have been practised by large parts of the population. The mummy mask, originally an Egyptian concept, grew more and more Graeco-Roman in style, Egyptian motifs became ever rarer. The adoption of Roman portrait painting into Egyptian burial cult belongs into this general context.[27]

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Some authors suggest that the idea of such portraits may be related to the custom among the Roman nobility of displaying imagines, images of their ancestors, in the atrium of their house. In funeral processions, these wax masks were worn by professional mourners to emphasize the continuity of an illustrious family line, but originally perhaps to represent a deeper evocation of the presence of the dead. Roman festivals such as the Parentalia as well as everyday domestic rituals cultivated ancestral spirits (see also veneration of the dead). The development of mummy portraiture may represent a combination of Egyptian and Roman funerary tradition, since it appears only after Egypt was established as a Roman province.[28]

"Salon paintings"?

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The images depict the heads or busts of men, women and children. They probably date from c. 30 BC to the 3rd century.[29] To the modern eye, the portraits appear highly individualistic. Therefore, it has been assumed for a long time that they were produced during the lifetime of their subjects and displayed as "salon paintings" within their houses, to be added to their mummy wrapping after their death. Newer research rather suggests that they were only painted after death,[8] an idea perhaps contradicted by the multiple paintings on some specimens and the (suggested) change of specific details on others. The individualism of those depicted was actually created by variations in some specific details, within a largely unvaried general scheme.[8] The habit of depicting the deceased was not a new one, but the painted images gradually replaced the earlier Egyptian masks, although the latter continued in use for some time, often occurring directly adjacent to portrait mummies, sometimes even in the same graves.

Realism and convention

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Together with Greek vases and frescoes from Pompeii and Herculaneum, Macedonia and elsewhere, they are the best preserved paintings from ancient times and are renowned for their remarkable naturalism. It is, however, debatable whether the portraits depict the subjects as they really were. Analyses have shown that the painters depicted faces according to conventions in a repetitive and formulaic way, albeit with a variety of hairstyles and beards. They appear to have worked from a number of standard types without making detailed observations of the unique facial proportions of specific individuals which give each face its own personality.

Style

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In the virtual absence of other panel paintings from the period in question, it is difficult to make firm statements about the stylistic context of the portraits. While it seems clear that they are not in continuity from Egyptian precedents, the same cannot be said for the northern shores of the Mediterranean, where such material is less likely to have survived, due to climatic conditions there. Evidence from frescoes, mosaics and other media suggests that stylistically, the mummy portraits broadly fit within the prevailing Graeco-Roman traditions then dominant around the Mediterranean.

Coexistence with other burial habits

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The religious meaning of mummy portraits has not, so far, been fully explained, nor have associated grave rites. There is some indication that it developed from genuine Egyptian funerary rites, adapted by a multi-cultural ruling class.[8] The tradition of mummy portraits occurred from the Delta to Nubia, but it is striking that other funerary habits prevailed over portrait mummies at all sites except those in the Faiyum (and there especially Hawara and Achmim) and Antinoopolis. In most sites, different forms of burial coexisted. The choice of grave type may have been determined to a large extent by the financial means and status of the deceased, modified by local customs. Portrait mummies have been found both in rock-cut tombs and in freestanding built grave complexes, but also in shallow pits. It is striking that they are virtually never accompanied by any grave offerings, with the exception of occasional pots or sprays of flowers.[30]

End of the mummy portrait tradition

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Portrait of a young boy, early 3rd century, Antikensammlung Berlin.
 
Portrait of an Egyptian man

For a long time, it was assumed that the latest portraits belong to the end of the 4th century, but recent research has modified this view considerably, suggesting that the last wooden portraits belong to the middle, the last directly painted mummy wrappings to the second half of the 3rd century. It is commonly accepted that production reduced considerably since the beginning of the 3rd century. Several reasons for the decline of the mummy portrait have been suggested; no single reason should probably be isolated, rather, they should be seen as operating together.

  • In the 3rd century the Roman Empire underwent a severe economic crisis, severely limiting the financial abilities of the upper classes. Although they continued to lavishly spend money on representation, they favoured public appearances, like games and festivals, over the production of portraits. Other elements of sepulchral representation, like sarcophagi did, however, continue.
  • There is evidence of a religious crisis at the same time. This may not be as closely connected with the rise of Christianity as previously assumed (the earlier suggestion of a 4th century end to the portraits would coincide with the widespread distribution of Christianity in Egypt. Christianity also never banned mummification). An increasing neglect of Egyptian temples is noticeable during the Roman imperial period, leading to a general drop in interest in all ancient religions.
  • The Constitutio Antoniniana, i.e. the granting of Roman citizenship to all free subjects changed the social structures of Egypt. For the first time, the individual cities gained a degree of self-administration. At the same time, the provincial upper classes changed in terms of both composition and inter-relations.

Thus, a combination of several factors appears to have led to changes of fashion and ritual. No clear causality can be asserted.[31] Considering the limited nature of the current understanding of portrait mummies, it remains distinctly possible that future research will considerably modify the image presented here. For example, some scholars suspect that the centre of production of such finds, and thus the centre of the distinctive funerary tradition they represent, may have been located at Alexandria. New finds from Marina el-Alamein strongly support such a view.[6] In view of the near-total loss of Greek and Roman paintings, mummy portraits are today considered to be among the very rare examples of ancient art that can be seen to reflect "Great paintings" and especially Roman portrait painting.[8]

Mummy portraits as sources on provincial Roman fashion

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Depiction of a woman with curly hair, wearing a violet chiton and cloak and pendant earrings. British Museum.

Provincial fashions

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Mummy portraits depict a variety of different hairstyles. They are one of the main aids in dating the paintings. The majority of the deceased were depicted with hairstyles then in fashion. They are frequently similar to those depicted in sculpture. As part of Roman propaganda, such sculptures, especially those depicting the imperial family, were often displayed throughout the empire. Thus, they had a direct influence on the development of fashion. Nevertheless, the mummy portraits, as well as other finds, suggest that fashions lasted longer in the provinces that in the imperial court, or at least that diverse styles might coexist.

Hairstyles

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Since Roman men tended to wear short-cropped hair, female hairstyles are a better source of evidence for changes in fashion. The female portraits suggest a coarse chronological scheme: Simple hairstyles with a central parting in the Tiberian period are followed by more complex ringlet hairstyles, nested plaits and curly toupées over the forehead in the late 1st century. Small oval nested plaits dominate the time of the Antonines, simple central-parting hairstyles with a hairknot in the neck occur in the second half of the 2nd century. The time of Septimius Severus was characterised by toupée-like fluffy as well as strict, straight styles, followed by looped plaits on the crown of the head. The latter belong to the very final phase of mummy portraits, and have only been noted on a few mummy wrappings. It seems to be the case that curly hairstyles were especially popular in Egypt.[32]

 
Depiction of a woman with a ringlet hairstyle, an orange chiton with black bands and rod-shaped earrings. Royal Museum of Scotland.

Clothing

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Like the hairstyles, the clothing depicted also follows the general fashions of the Roman Empire, as known from statues and busts. Both men and women tend to wear a thin chiton as an undergarment. Above it, both sexes tend to wear a cloak, laid across the shoulders or wound around the torso. The males wear virtually exclusively white, while female clothing is often red or pink, but can also be yellow, white, blue or purple. The chiton often bears a decorative line (clavus), occasionally light red or light green, also sometimes gold, but normally in dark colours. Some painted mummy wrappings from Antinoopolis depict garments with long sleeves and very wide clavi. So far, not a single portrait has been definitely shown to depict the toga, a key symbol of Roman citizenship. It should, however, be kept in mind that Greek cloaks and togas are draped very similarly on depictions of the 1st and early 2nd centuries. In the late 2nd and 3rd centuries, togas should be distinguishable, but fail to occur.[33]

Jewellery

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With very few exceptions, only women are depicted with jewellery. It generally accords to the common jewellery types of the Graeco-Roman East. Especially the Antinoopolis portraits depict simple gold link chains and massive gold rings. There are also depictions of precious or semi-precious stones like emerald, carnelian, garnet, agate or amethyst, rarely also of pearls. The stones were normally ground into cylindrical or spherical beads. Some portraits depict elaborate colliers, with precious stones set in gold.

There are three basic shapes of ear ornaments: Especially common in the 1st century are circular or drop-shaped pendants. Archaeological finds indicate that these were fully or semi-spherical. Later tastes favoured S-shaped hooks of gold wire, on which up to five beads of different colours and materials could be strung. The third shape are elaborate pendants with a horizontal bar from which two or three, occasionally four, vertical rods are suspended, usually each decorated with a white bead or pearl at the bottom. Other common ornaments include gold hairpins, often decorated with pearls, fine diadems, and, especially at Antinoopolis, gold hairnets. Many portraits also depict amulets and pendants, perhaps with magical functions.[34]

Art-historical significance

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Tondo with images of Septimius Severus and his family. Antikensammlung Berlin.

The mummy portraits have immense art-historical importance. Ancient sources indicate that panel painting (rather than wall painting), i.e. painting on wood or other mobile surfaces was held in high regard. But very few ancient panel paintings survive. One of the few examples besides the mummy portraits is the Severan Tondo, also from Egypt (around 200), which, like the mummy portraits, is believed to represent a provincial version of contemporary style.[35] Some aspects of the mummy portraits, especially their frontal perspective and their concentration on key facial features, strongly resemble later icon painting. A direct link has been suggested, but it should be kept in mind that the mummy portraits represent only a small part of a much wider Graeco-Roman tradition, the whole of which later bore an influence on Late Antique and Byzantine Art. A pair of panel "icons" of Serapis and Isis of comparable date (3rd century) and style are in the Getty Museum at Malibu;[36] as with the cult of Mithras, earlier examples of cult images were sculptures or pottery figurines, but from the 3rd century reliefs and then painted images are found.[37]

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See also

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Bibliography

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(chronological order)

  • W. M. Flinders Petrie: Roman Portraits and Memphis IV, London 1911 (online:[2])
  • Klaus Parlasca: Mumienporträts und verwandte Denkmäler, Wiesbaden 1966
  • Klaus Parlasca: Ritratti di mummie, Repertorio d'arte dell'Egitto greco-romano Vol. B, 1-4, Rome 1969-2003 (Corpus of most of the known mummy portraits)
  • Henning Wrede: Mumienporträts. In: Lexikon der Ägyptologie. Bd. IV, Wiesbaden 1982, column 218-222
  • Barbara Borg: Mumienporträts. Chronologie und kultureller Kontext, Mainz 1996, ISBN 3-8053-1742-5
  • Susan Walker, Morris Bierbrier: Ancient Faces, Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt, London 1997 ISBN 0714109894
  • Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998 (Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie/ Sonderhefte der Antiken Welt), ISBN 3-8053-2264-X; ISBN 3-8053-2263-1
  • Wilfried Seipel (Hrsg.): Bilder aus dem Wüstensand. Mumienportraits aus dem Ägyptischen Museum Kairo; eine Ausstellung des Kunsthistorischen Museums Wien, Milan/Wien/Ostfildern 1998; ISBN 88-8118-459-1;
  • Klaus Parlasca; Hellmut Seemann (Hrsg.): Augenblicke. Mumienporträts und ägyptische Grabkunst aus römischer Zeit [zur Ausstellung Augenblicke - Mumienporträts und Ägyptische Grabkunst aus Römischer Zeit, in der Schirn-Kunsthalle Frankfurt (30. Januar bis 11. April 1999)], München 1999, ISBN 3-7814-0423-4
  • Nicola Hoesch: Mumienporträts in: Der Neue Pauly, Vol. 8 (2000), p. 464f.
  • Susan Walker (ed.): Ancient Faces. Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt. New York, 2000. ISBN 0-415-92744-7.
  • Paula Modersohn-Becker und die ägyptischen Mumienportraits...Katalogbuch zur Ausstellung in Bremen, Kunstsammlung Böttcherstraße, 14.10.2007-24.2.2008, München 2007, ISBN 978-3-7774-3735-4
  • Jan Picton, Stephen Quirke, Paul C. Roberts (Hrsg): Living Images, Egyptian Funerary Portraits in the Petrie Museum, Walnut Creek CA 2007 ISBN 978-1-59874-251-0

References

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  1. ^ Berman, Lawrence, Freed, Rita E., and Doxey, Denise. Arts of Ancient Egypt. p.193. Museum of Fine Arts Boston. 2003. ISBN 0878466614
  2. ^ Examples still attached are in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo and the British Museum
  3. ^ Oakes, Lorna. Gahlin, Lucia. Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs. p.236 Hermes House. 2002. ISBN 1-84477-008-7
  4. ^ Corpus of all known specimens: Klaus Parlasca: Ritratti di mummie, Repertorio d'arte dell'Egitto greco-romano Vol. B, 1-4, Rome 1969-2003; a further specimen discovered since: Petrie Museum UC 79360, B. T. Trope, S. Quirke, P. Lacovara: Excavating Egypt, Atlanta 2005, p. 101, ISBN 1928917062
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 10f.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 13f., 34ff.
  7. ^ Petrie: Roman Portraits and Memphis IV, p. 1
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Nicola Hoesch: Mumienporträts in: Der Neue Pauly, Bd. 8 (2000), p. 464
  9. ^ Wrede, LÄ IV, 218
  10. ^ Adams, Winthrope L in Bugh, Glenn Richard. ed. "The Hellenistic Kingdoms". The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2006, p. 39
  11. ^ Stanwick, Paul Edmund. Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek Kings as Egyptian Pharaohs. Austin: University of Texas Press. 2003, p. 23
  12. ^ Adams, op cit.
  13. ^ Bagnall, R.S. in Susan Walker, ed. Ancient Faces : Mummy Portraits in Roman Egypt (Metropolitan Museum of Art Publications). New York: Routledge, 2000, p. 27
  14. ^ Bagnall, op cit.
  15. ^ Bagnall, pp. 28-29
  16. ^ Egyptology Online: Fayoum mummy portraits accessed on January 16, 2007
  17. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online - Egyptian art and architecture - Greco-Roman Egypt accessed on January 16, 2007
  18. ^ Bagnall, op cit.
  19. ^ Walker, Susan, op cit., p. 24
  20. ^ Dentition helps archaeologists to assess biological and ethnic population traits and relationships
  21. ^ Irish JD (2006). "Who were the ancient Egyptians? Dental affinities among Neolithic through postdynastic peoples.". Am J Phys Anthropol 129 (4): 529-43
  22. ^ Encyclopedia Of Ancient Greece, Nigel Guy, Routledge Taylor and Francis group, p.601
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 58
  24. ^ Nicola Hoesch: Mumienporträts in: Der Neue Pauly, Bd. 8 (2000), p. 465
  25. ^ Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 53-55
  26. ^ Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 40-56; Walker, Bierbrier: Ancient Faces, p. 17-20
  27. ^ summarised in: Judith A. Corbelli: The Art of Death in Graeco-Roman Egypt, Princes Risborough 2006 ISBN 0747806470
  28. ^ Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 78
  29. ^ Nicola Hoesch: Mumienporträts in: Der Neue Pauly, Vol. 8 (2000), p. 464; others scholars, eg Barbara Borg suggest that they start under Tiberius.
  30. ^ Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 31
  31. ^ Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 88-101
  32. ^ Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 45-49
  33. ^ Barbara Borg: "Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 49-51
  34. ^ Barbara Borg: „Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ....“ Ägyptische Porträtmumien, Mainz 1998, p. 51-52
  35. ^ other examples: a framed portrait from Hawara (Walker, Bierbrier: Ancient Faces, p. 121-122, Nr. 117), the image of a man flanked by two deities from the same site (Walker, Bierbrier: Ancient Faces, p. 123-24, Nr. 119), or the 6th century BC panels from Pitsa in Greece [1]
  36. ^ image
  37. ^ Kurt Weitzmann in The Icon, 1982, Evans Brothers Ltd, London, p. 3, (trans of Le Icone, Montadori 1981), ISBN 0237456451
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