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無神論
概念
無神論與宗教 · 非有神論 · 反神論
形而上自然主義
強無神論和弱無神論
顯無神論和隱無神論
歷史
無神論的歷史 · 新無神論
爭論/論據
神不存在的證明 · 無神論者的賭注 · 邪神挑戰（英語：Evil God Challenge） · 無知者的命運（英語：Fate of the unlearned） · 自由意志悖論 · 與上帝之間的鴻溝（英語：God of the gaps） · 不相容論證（英語：Incompatible-properties argument） · 希欽斯剃刀 · 不一致啟示論證 · 無信仰論證（英語：Argument from nonbelief） · 全能悖論 · 地獄問題（英語：Problem of Hell） · 罪惡問題 · 羅素的茶壺 · 神學語言非認知主義（英語：Theological noncognitivism） · 終極波音747策略
其它
無神論人口 · 著名的無神論者
國家無神論
對無神論的批評 · 歧視與迫害
相關概念
不可知論
無宗教
自然主義
世俗主義

對無神論者的歧視（有時稱為atheophobia）[1][2] 無神論者和那些標籤為無神論者在過去和現代所面臨的迫害和歧視。歷史和文化上對無神論的不同定義意味著那些受歧視者可能不符合現代定義無神論的標準。

在憲政民主制裏，歧視無神論者的法律並不常見，但一些無神論者和無神論的團體，特別是在美國，抗議他們認為帶有歧視性的法律，法規和機構。在一些伊斯蘭國家，無神論者面對的歧視包括缺乏法律地位，甚至可能因叛教而被判死刑。

古代

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歷史學家包括呂西安·費夫爾等認為具現代意義的無神論在十八世紀之前並不存在。[3][4][5]然而，隨著一些地區的官方權威提出君權神授說，抗拒接受當地上帝存在的人被視為威脅。包括早期的基督徒和穆斯林，他們被標籤為無神論者， 並受法律迫害。[6][7]

近代時期和宗教改革

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在近代時期，「無神論者」一詞被用作為一種侮辱，並應用到廣泛的人，包括那些持反對神學信仰、自殺、不道德的或自我放縱的人，甚至巫術上的對手。[3][4][8] 無神論的信仰被哲學家如托馬斯·阿奎那視為對社會秩序的威脅。政治家托馬斯·莫爾認為宗的教寬容應該延伸到所有人，除了那些不相信神或靈魂不朽的人。[6] 現代信仰自由的創始人約翰·洛克認為無神論者（如天主教徒和穆斯林）不應該被授予充分的公民權利。[6]

在宗教裁判所時期，一些被指責為無神論者或褻瀆宗教的人會被折磨甚至處決。其中包括義大利學者瓦尼尼，1619年被處死[3][9][10]，以及法國人艾蒂安·多雷，1546年被處以火刑。[11]雖然在十九世紀他們被視為無神論烈士，近期的學者認為他們所擁護的信仰並非現代的無神論。[5][12][13]

現代

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英國

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在19世紀，英國的無神論者雖然人數不多，仍受到歧視。[14] 當時在司法程序中不願作基督教式誓言的人不能在法庭上作供，直至相關法例在1869年和1870年被廢除。 [14]1811年，著名英國詩人珀西·比希·雪萊因出版《無神論的必要性（英語：The Necessity of Atheism）》而被牛津大學開除，1818年雪萊被英國法院以作為無神論者為藉口，剝奪他對子女的監護權。[15]

1880年無神論者查爾斯．布拉德勞（英語：Charles Bradlaugh）當選為國會議員。他拒絕以基督教的方式宣誓就職，並向議會提出用另外的方式宣誓，結果被拒及剝奪當選權利。及後布拉德勞重新當選了三次，但都被拒就任。1886年，布拉德勞第四次當選，眾議院議長終於允許他宣誓就任。上任後他提出《宣誓法案（英語：Oaths Act 1888）》並獲得通過，令宣誓不再限於宗教方式。[15]

納粹德國

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在納粹德國時期，1933年的法令指出 "No National Socialist may suffer detriment... on the ground that he does not make any religious profession at all".[16]納粹德國政權 強烈反對「無神的共產主義」，[17][18] 同年，大多數德國無神論者左翼自由思想組織被取締;一些右翼團體被納粹容忍，直到30年代中期。[19][20] During negotiations leading to the Nazi-Vatican Concordat of April 26, 1933 Hitler stated that "Secular schools can never be tolerated" because of their irreligious tendencies.[21] In a speech made later in 1933, Hitler claimed to have "stamped [Gottlosenbewegung] it out".[16] The word Hitler used, "Gottlosenbewegung", refers specifically to the communist freethought movement, not atheism in general.[22]

Contemporary era

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Western countries

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Modern theories of constitutional democracy assume that citizens are intellectually and spiritually autonomous and that governments should leave matters of religious belief to individuals and not coerce religious beliefs using sanctions or benefits. The constitutions, human rights conventions and the religious liberty jurisprudence of most constitutional democracies provides legal protection of atheists and agnostics. In addition, freedom of expression provisions and legislation separating church from state also serve to protect the rights of atheists. As a result, open legal discrimination against atheists is not common in most Western countries.[6] However, prejudice against atheists does exist in Western countries. A University of British Columbia study found that believers distrust atheists as much as rapists. The study also showed that atheists have lower employment prospects.[23]

Europe

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In most of Europe, atheists are elected to office at high levels in many governments without controversy.[24] Some atheist organizations in Europe have expressed concerns regarding issues of separation of church and state, such as administrative fees for leaving the Church charged in Germany,[25] and sermons being organized by the Swedish parliament.[26] Ireland requires religious training from Christian colleges in order to work as a teacher in government funded schools.[27] In the UK one-third of state-funded schools are faith based;[28] however, there are no restrictions on atheists holding public office: the Deputy Prime Minister, Nick Clegg, is an atheist.[29] According to a 2012 poll, 25% of the Turks in Germany believe atheists are inferior human beings.[30][31]

Canada

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Canadian secular humanist groups have worked to end the recitation of prayers during government proceedings, viewing them as discriminatory.[32][33]

United States

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Discrimination against atheists in the United States occurs in legal, personal, social, and professional contexts. Some American atheists compare their situation to the discrimination faced by ethnic minorities, LGBT communities, and women.[34][35][36][37] "Americans still feel it's acceptable to discriminate against atheists in ways considered beyond the pale for other groups," asserted Fred Edwords of the American Humanist Association.[38] However, other atheists reject these comparisons, arguing that while atheists may face disapproval they have not faced significant oppression or discrimination.[39][40]

In the United States, six state constitutions officially include religious tests that would effectively prevent atheists from holding public office, and in some cases being a juror/witness, though these have not generally been enforced since the early nineteenth century.[41][42][43] The U.S. Constitution allows for an affirmation instead of an oath in order to accommodate atheists and others in court or seeking to hold public office.[41][44] In 1961, the United States Supreme Court explicitly overturned the Maryland provision in the Torcaso v. Watkins decision, holding that laws requiring "a belief in the existence of God" in order to hold public office violated freedom of religion provided for by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.[41][45][46] This decision is generally understood to also apply to witness oaths.[47]

Several American atheists have used court challenges to assert discrimination against atheists. Michael Newdow challenged inclusion of the phrase "under God" in the United States Pledge of Allegiance on behalf of his daughter, claiming that the phrase was discriminatory against non-theists.[48] He won the case at an initial stage, but the Supreme Court dismissed his claim, ruling that Newdow did not have standing to bring his case, thus disposing of the case without ruling on the constitutionality of the pledge.[49][50] Respondents to a survey were less likely to support a kidney transplant for hypothetical atheists and agnostics needing it, than for Christian patients with similar medical needs.[51] As the Boy Scouts of America does not allow atheists as members, atheist families and the ACLU from the 1990s onwards have launched a series of court cases arguing discrimination against atheists. In response to ACLU lawsuits, the Pentagon in 2004 ended sponsorship of Scouting units,[52][53] and in 2005 the BSA agreed to transfer all Scouting units out of government entities such as public schools.[54][55]

Few politicians have been willing to identify as non-theists, since such revelations have been considered "political suicide".[56][57] In a landmark move, California Representative Pete Stark came out in 2007 as the first openly nontheistic member of Congress.[38] In 2009, City Councilman Cecil Bothwell of Asheville, North Carolina was called "unworthy of his seat" because of his open atheism.[58] Several polls have shown that about 50 percent of Americans would not vote for a qualified atheist for president.[59][60] A 2006 study found that 40% of respondents characterized atheists as a group that did "not at all agree with my vision of American society", and that 48% would not want their child to marry an atheist. In both studies, percentages of disapproval of atheists were above those for Muslims, African-Americans and homosexuals.[61] Many of the respondents associated atheism with immorality, including criminal behaviour, extreme materialism, and elitism.[62] Atheists and atheist organizations have alleged discrimination against atheists in the military,[63][64][65][66][67][68] and recently, with the development of the Army's Comprehensive Soldier Fitness program, atheists have alleged institutionalized discrimination.[69][70] In several child custody court rulings, atheist parents have been discriminated against, either directly or indirectly. As child custody laws in the United States, are often based on the "best interests of the child" principle, they leave family court judges ample room to consider a parent’s ideology when settling a custody case. Atheism, lack of religious observation and regular church attendance, and the inability to prove one's willingness and capacity to attend to religion with his children, have been used to deny custody to non-religious parents.[71][72]

Prominent atheists and atheist groups have said that discrimination against atheists is illustrated by a statement reportedly made by George H. W. Bush during a public press conference just after announcing his candidacy for the presidency in 1987.[34][73][74][75] When asked by journalist Robert Sherman about the equal citizenship and patriotism of American atheists, Sherman reported that Bush answered, "No, I don't know that atheists should be regarded as citizens, nor should they be regarded as patriotic. This is one nation under God."[76][77][34][75] However, Sherman did not tape the exchange and no other journalist reported on it at the time.[34] George H. W. Bush's son, George W. Bush, acknowledged those who do not worship during a November 3, 2004 press conference when he said "I will be your president regardless of your faith... And if they choose not to worship, they're just as patriotic as your neighbor."[78]

The constitutions of these seven US states ban atheists from holding public office:

Arkansas:
"No person who denies the being of a God shall hold any office in the civil departments of this State, nor be competent to testify as a witness in any Court."[79]
Maryland:
"That no religious test ought ever to be required as a qualification for any office of profit or trust in this State, other than a declaration of belief in the existence of God; nor shall the Legislature prescribe any other oath of office than the oath prescribed by this Constitution.」[80]
Mississippi:
"No person who denies the existence of a Supreme Being shall hold any office in this state."[81]
North Carolina:
"The following persons shall be disqualified for office: First, any person who shall deny the being of Almighty God."[82]
South Carolina:
"No person who denies the existence of a Supreme Being shall hold any office under this Constitution."[83]
Tennessee:
"No person who denies the being of God, or a future state of rewards and punishments, shall hold any office in the civil department of this state."[84]
Texas:
"No religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office, or public trust, in this State; nor shall any one be excluded from holding office on account of his religious sentiments, provided he acknowledge the existence of a Supreme Being."[85]

An eighth state constitution discriminates against atheists by affording special protection to theists only.

Pennsylvania:
"No person who acknowledges the being of a God and a future state of rewards and punishments shall, on account of his religious sentiments, be disqualified to hold any office or place of trust or profit under this Commonwealth."[86]

Islamic countries

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Atheists, or those accused of holding atheistic beliefs, may be subject to discrimination and persecution in some Islamic countries. Compared to other nations, atheists "in Islamic countries face the most severe - sometimes brutal - treatment ..."[87]

According to popular interpretations of Islam, Muslims are not free to change religion or become an atheist: denying Islam and thus becoming an apostate is traditionally punished by death in men and by life imprisonment in women. The death penalty for apostasy is apparent in a range of Islamic states including: Iran,[88][89] Egypt,[90] Pakistan,[91] Somalia,[92] United Arab Emirates,[93] Qatar,[94] Yemen,[94] and Saudi Arabia,[95] although there have been no recently reported executions in Saudi Arabia.[96] While a death sentence is rare, it is common for atheists to be charged with blasphemy or inciting hatred.[97] New "Arab Spring" regimes in Tunisia and Egypt have jailed several outspoken atheists.[97]

Since an apostate can be considered a Muslim whose beliefs cast doubt on the Divine, and/or Koran, claims of atheism and apostasy have been made against Muslim scholars and political opponents throughout history.[98][99][100] Both fundamentalists and moderates agree that "blasphemers will not be forgiven" although they disagree on the severity of an appropriate punishment.[97]

In Iran, atheists do not have any recognized legal status, and must declare that they are Muslim, Christian, Jewish or Zoroastrian, in order to claim some legal rights, including applying for entrance to university,[101] or becoming a lawyer.[102] Similarly, Jordan requires atheists to associate themselves with a recognized religion for official identification purposes,[103] and atheists in Indonesia experience official discrimination in the context of registration of births and marriages, and the issuance of identity cards.[104] In Egypt, intellectuals suspected of holding atheistic beliefs have been prosecuted by judicial and religious authorities. Novelist Alaa Hamad was convicted of publishing a book that contained atheistic ideas and apostasy that were considered to threaten national unity and social peace.[105][106]

Algeria

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The study of Islam is a requirement in public and private schools for every Algerian child, irrespective of his/her religion.[107]

Atheist or agnostic men are prohibited from marrying Muslim women (Algerian Family Code I.II.31).[108] A marriage is legally nullified by the apostasy of the husband (presumably from Islam, although this is not specified; Family Code I.III.33). Atheists and agnostics cannot inherit (Family Code III.I.138.).

Thailand

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In Thailand, atheists do not have any recognized legal status, and must declare that they are either Muslim, Christian, Buddhist, or Hindu. Atheists are forced to pay respect to Buddha and participate in Buddhist ceremonies in schools, universities, and work places. Thai people have negative attitudes toward atheists and have stigmatized them as an outcast, uncivilized group, and at the worst public enemies.[來源請求]

Turkey

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Compulsory religious instruction in Turkish schools is also considered discriminatory towards atheists.[109]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Rafford, Robert L. Atheophobia: An Introduction. Religious Humanism. Vol. 21 (Fellowship of Religious Humanists). 1987: 33. Atheophobia is pathological, and similar in nature to homophobia. It is unconscious, internalized, and taught from early years on. 
  2. ^ Nash, Robert J. Inviting Atheists to the Table: A Modest Proposal for Higher Education. Religion & Education (New York). 2003, 30 (1). ISSN 1550-7394. doi:10.1080/15507394.2003.10012315.  已忽略未知參數|month=（建議使用|date=） (幫助); 已忽略未知參數|passage=（建議使用|pages=） (幫助)
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Davidson, Nicholas. Unbelief and Atheism In Italy. Michael Hunter; David Wootton (編). Atheism from the Reformation to the Enlightenment. Oxford University Press. 1992: 55–86. ISBN 978-0-19-822736-6. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Armstrong, Karen. A History of God: The 4000-year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Random House, Inc. 1994: 286–87. ISBN 978-0-345-38456-0. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Kelley, Donald R. Frontiers of History: Historical Inquiry in the Twentieth Century. Yale University Press. 2006: 115. ISBN 978-0-300-12062-2. 
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Gey, Steven G. Atheism and the Freedom of Religion. Martin, Michael (編). The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Cambridge University Press. 2007: 250–253, 260–2. ISBN 978-0-521-84270-9. 
  7. ^ Armstrong, Karen. A History of God: The 4000-year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Random House, Inc. 1994: 98, 147. ISBN 978-0-345-38456-0. 
  8. ^ Laursen, John Christian; Nederman, Cary J. Beyond the Persecuting Society: Religious Toleration Before the Enlightenment. University of Pennsylvania Press. 1997: 142. ISBN 978-0-8122-1567-0. 
  9. ^ Brooke, John Hedley. Heterodoxy in Early Modern Science and Religion. Maclean, Ian. Oxford University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-926897-9. 
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  37. ^ Zellner, William W. Deep In The Bible Belt – One Atheist Professor's Experience. Freethought Today. December 1995 [2013-05-11]. 
  38. ^ 38.0 38.1 Humanists Praise Pete Stark for "Coming Out" as a Nontheist. American Humanist. [2009-03-17].  引用錯誤：帶有name屬性「AHA」的<ref>標籤用不同內容定義了多次
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  52. ^ Winkler v. Chicago School Reform Board[失效連結]
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  55. ^ Boy Scouts Jamboree to Stay at Army Base. Washington Times. [2006-03-02]. （原始內容存檔於2006-04-19）. 
  56. ^ Marinucci, Carla. Stark's atheist views break political taboo. San Francisco Chronicle. 2007-03-14 [2009-03-12]. 
  57. ^ California Lawmaker Becomes Highest-Ranking Official To Say He's a Nonbeliever. Nysun.com. [4 December 2011]. 
  58. ^ Critics Say Atheist N.C. City councilman Unworthy of Seat. Fox News. 7 April 2010 [4 December 2011]. 
  59. ^ Faith in the System. Mother Jones. 2004.  已忽略未知參數|month=（建議使用|date=） (幫助)
  60. ^ Page, Susan. 2008 race has the face of a changing America. USA Today. 2007-03-12 [2009-03-13]. 
  61. ^ Penny Edgell; Joseph Gerteis, and Douglas Hartmann. Atheists As "Other": Moral Boundaries and Cultural Membership in American Society (PDF). American Sociological Review. 2006, 71 (2): 218.  已忽略未知參數|month=（建議使用|date=） (幫助);
  62. ^ Atheists identified as America’s most distrusted minority, according to new U of M study. UMN News. [2006-03-22]. 
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編輯
 
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