奥斯曼一世
奥斯曼一世或称奥斯曼加齐(鄂图曼土耳其语:عثمان غازى,土耳其语:Osmān Ghāzi ; ?—1323/1324年)[1][2],他领导鄂图曼土耳其人部族开创了鄂图曼王朝。新生的鄂图曼帝国国名由来即是以奠基者奥斯曼一世的名字所命名(刚建立的鄂图曼帝国当时被称为“奥斯曼侯国”)。尽管在奥斯曼的统治时期,初生的奥斯曼侯国只是位于安那托利亚地区的一个小国家,但在他去世后的几个世纪里,奥斯曼侯国逐步演变成一个横跨欧亚非三洲的强大帝国[4]。鄂图曼帝国国祚直到第一次世界大战结束后的1923年才宣告终结。
奥斯曼加齐 عثمان غازى | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
加齐 贝伊 | |||||
第一任鄂图曼帝国苏丹(贝伊) | |||||
统治 | 1299年7月27日-1323年或1324年 | ||||
继任 | 奥尔汗一世 | ||||
出生 | 出生日期不明[1] 鲁姆苏丹国 | ||||
逝世 | 1323年或1324年[2] 鄂图曼帝国布尔萨 | ||||
安葬 | |||||
配偶 | 见下文 | ||||
子嗣 | 见下文 | ||||
| |||||
王朝 | 鄂图曼王朝 | ||||
父亲 | 埃尔图鲁尔加齐 | ||||
母亲 | 尚有争议[3] | ||||
宗教信仰 | 伊斯兰教 |
由于奥斯曼统治时期没有任何字面资料流传至今,导致有关他生涯事迹的历史资料极为缺乏[5]。鄂图曼帝国直到十五世纪,也就是在其去世一百多年后才有文字正式记录奥斯曼一世的生平[6]。因此,历史学者要从讲述他丰功伟业的许多故事中区分史实与神话极具挑战性[7]。甚至有史学家将奥斯曼一世的生平描述为鄂图曼帝国历史中的“黑洞”时期,直言后人要厘清这段帝国早年历史是不可能的[8]。
根据鄂图曼帝国日后的传统观点主张,奥斯曼一世的先祖是来自中亚地区卡耶部落的乌古斯突厥人,由于蒙古帝国发动的征服战役而被迫西迁至安纳托利亚一带,以躲避蒙古人的战火[9]。1299年,部落首领奥斯曼宣布在比提尼亚地区建立起自己独立的小国家,虽然在当时仅是十三世纪下半叶出现的众多安纳托利亚侯国之一。不过由于位处欧亚交界的边缘地带,因此特别易于对衰落中的拜占庭帝国发动攻击,蚕食拜占庭已摇摇欲坠的领土,奥斯曼的后代终将追随他的脚步,完成征服整个拜占庭帝国的事业。
奥斯曼的名字
编辑部分学者认为奥斯曼早年的名字带有明显的突厥风格,名为阿图曼或者是阿杜曼,后来才改为相近的阿拉伯式名字,根据和奥斯曼生活在同个时代的希腊裔历史学家乔治·帕奇梅雷斯的记载,奥斯曼的名字被拼写为阿图曼(Ατουμάνor)与阿杜曼(Ατμάν),而希腊语在书写“奥斯曼”人名时通常写作Οσμάν,此外早期的鄂图曼家族,如奥斯曼的父亲与叔叔皆未采用阿拉伯人名,显示奥斯曼极有可能在他人生的中后期,将原本的名字改为更具威望的穆斯林人名[10]。
奥斯曼帝国的起源
编辑奥斯曼确切的出生日期尚有争议,由于可靠史料的稀缺加上鄂图曼人在后来的几个世纪中不断为他的事迹大力吹捧,使奥斯曼的生平被掩盖于神话的迷雾之中,对他的真实身分和早年生活事实上却知之甚少[1][11]。依据十六世纪奥斯曼帝国历史学家凯末尔·帕夏扎德所写的日期,奥斯曼最有可能出生于十三世纪中叶的1254年到1255年之间[12]。而鄂图曼人的崛起过程,根据鄂图曼帝国的官方说法,为了逃离蒙古大军西征的铁蹄,奥斯曼的父亲埃尔图鲁尔加齐带领突厥人卡耶部落从突厥斯坦往西迁移进入安纳托利亚。随后埃尔图鲁尔向当地统治者鲁姆苏丹国(塞尔柱帝国的分支政权)的苏丹宣誓效忠,并获得鲁姆苏丹授予他邻近拜占庭帝国边界的瑟于特小镇作为封地,且有权在夏季前往瑟于特西南方的高地放牧牲畜[13]。然而,埃尔图鲁尔和塞尔柱王朝间的关系很大程度上是由一个世纪后的鄂图曼宫廷御用史学家所编篡的历史,因此事实上鄂图曼人的真正起源与出身背景依旧充满著谜团[14]。
当奥斯曼的父亲埃尔图鲁尔大约于 1280年去世之后,奥斯曼继承了贝伊(相当于首领或酋长之意)的头衔与地位[13]。现今对奥斯曼的早年生涯一无所知,只约略知晓他控制了瑟于特周围的土地,并以瑟于特为基地展开针对拜占庭帝国的军事行动。奥斯曼生平第一个有确切纪录的事件是发生于1301年或1302年的巴菲乌斯之战,当时奥斯曼率领部队在战斗中击败了一支拜占庭的军队[15]。
奥斯曼似乎为了避免与更强大的突厥邻居发生冲突,而决定实行以攻击拜占庭人所控制的领土为扩张策略[13],奥斯曼首先将领地从原本掌握的埃斯基谢希尔一带,贫瘠的北佛里几亚地区扩张到更肥沃的比提尼亚平原;根据学者史丹佛·肖尔的研究,奥斯曼特别针对当地拜占庭贵族所拥有的土地展开征服行动,“其中一些贵族在战斗中被击败,其他领主则经由以金钱购买城镇以及政治联姻等方式和平地被吸收到鄂图曼人的国土中[16]。”
关于奥斯曼一世年轻时的英勇事迹与冒险故事是奥斯曼帝国作家历来最喜爱的创作主题,特别是他在公平竞争下追求玛尔可敦芳心的爱情故事。这则有关奥斯曼的传奇轶闻在后来的奥斯曼帝国作家笔下,成为如梦似幻般的浪漫史诗。
奥斯曼之梦
编辑奥斯曼与一位名叫谢赫·艾德巴利的当地宗教领袖间有著密切的关系,日后的鄂图曼历史学者与作家们间广泛流传著一则有关两者的神话故事,故事描述年轻的奥斯曼某次投宿于谢赫·艾德巴利家中时所作的一场梦境[17]。这篇史诗故事出现在十五世纪晚期由阿沙克·帕夏札德编纂的史书中,内容如下:
他(指奥斯曼)看到一轮明月从圣者(指谢赫·艾德巴利)的胸前升起,缓缓沉入自己的胸膛之中。随即一棵大树从奥斯曼的肚脐中长出,大树的树荫覆盖了整个世界。阴影之下有著高耸的山岭,条条溪水自各山山脚下涌出。有人自淙淙溪水中取水而饮,有人迳取泉水浇灌花草,亦有巧匠引水喷泉。奥斯曼醒来后将梦中所见告诉圣者,圣者回答:“吾子奥斯曼,恭喜你!神已将帝国的宝座赐予给你以及你的后代子孙,我的女儿玛尔也将成为你的妻子[18]。”
这场梦境成为鄂图曼帝国的一则重要奠基神话,奥斯曼之梦不但赋予鄂图曼王室握有神所允诺统治全世界的权力,同时也美化了早年帝国创立者奥斯曼的功绩与成就[19]。除此之外,奥斯曼之梦也可视为神圣的契约:就像真主承诺赐给奥斯曼及其后代王权与荣耀一样,也暗喻著鄂图曼王室亦有责任为其臣民提供繁荣昌盛的义务[20]。
征服与统治
编辑据学者史丹佛·肖尔的考证,随著鲁姆苏丹国衰弱与分崩离析,奥斯曼也趁著安纳托利亚地区陷入各方势力割据的机会,趁势占领埃斯基谢希尔与卡拉贾希萨尔(Karacahisar)两座堡垒。不久后,奥斯曼攻下人口稠密的城镇耶尼谢希尔,并将都城迁移至新占领的耶尼谢希尔[16]。
1302年,当奥斯曼在尼西亚(现称伊兹尼克)一带击溃拜占庭的部队后,他的力量开始威胁到拜占庭帝国位于安那托利亚领土的安全[21]。
随著奥斯曼的势力越来越强大,拜占庭人纷纷逃离原本居住的安纳托利亚村庄。虽然拜占庭的领主们试图遏制鄂图曼人的扩张,但他们所做的微弱抵抗最终仍无法逃离遭到并吞的命运。在接下来的日子里,奥斯曼一世主要朝两个方向扩展他的势力范围,其一是向北沿著萨卡里亚河并吞沿途的村庄与土地,另一目标则是往西南方马摩拉海的海岸线推进,1308年,奥斯曼的军队还参与了艾登侯国征服以弗所的战役,以弗所是拜占庭帝国在爱琴海东部沿岸所掌握的最后一个根据地,该城沦陷后拜占庭在亚洲地区的势力更加衰弱[21]。
奥斯曼生涯的最后一场战役,是在1317年展开攻打重镇布尔萨的军事行动,经过严酷而漫长的围城,拜占庭人在1326年放弃抵抗,宣布投降[22]。虽然奥斯曼因为身染重病而没有亲身参与这次的战斗,但对于鄂图曼帝国来说,成功征服布尔萨对帝国的影响深远,因为这座城市不仅是拜占庭帝国在安那托利亚地区的重要据点,除此之外,奥斯曼的儿子奥尔汗一世在攻下这座城市后,更决定将帝国的首都迁移到布尔萨,并将他已逝的父亲奥斯曼隆重地安葬于布尔萨城中的清真寺内。
奥斯曼之剑
编辑奥斯曼之剑是在鄂图曼帝国历任苏丹于加冕仪式中所需使用的一把重要的国家之剑 [23]。授剑的传统源自奥斯曼的岳父谢赫·艾德巴利帮他佩带上这把伊斯兰之剑后,往后的苏丹皆延续这项授剑的即位仪式[24]。佩戴奥斯曼之剑是极为重要的登基典礼,大多于新任苏丹继承皇位的两周内举行。新苏丹首先会从首都伊斯坦堡的托普卡匹皇宫出发,并经由水路横越金角湾抵达艾郁普苏丹清真寺举行加冕仪式。奥斯曼之剑也是苏丹的信物,这把剑象征著:新任的鄂图曼帝国苏丹亦是一名手持战剑的战士。奥斯曼之剑在登基典礼中由一名来自梅夫拉维教团的托钵僧 - 科尼亚的谢里夫(Sharif of Konya)负责佩戴在新苏丹的身上,科尼亚的苏菲派教徒保有这项帮新任苏丹授剑的特权直至鄂图曼帝国灭亡[25]。
家庭
编辑由于记录奥斯曼生平的史料极为缺乏,导致现今对奥斯曼的家庭关系所知甚少。十五世纪时,部分鄂图曼帝国的作家声称鄂图曼家族是来自乌古斯人卡耶部落的后裔,这项说法后来成为鄂图曼官方认可的鄂图曼王室族谱,并广受土耳其民族主义者与历史学家穆罕默德·福阿德·科普鲁律的支持[26]。然而,现存最早的鄂图曼家谱中被未出现可追溯至卡耶部族的相关记载。因此,许多研究鄂图曼帝国历史的学者皆认为鄂图曼家族来自卡耶部落的说法是日后所捏造的族谱,目的是为了巩固鄂图曼皇室的正统性,让鄂图曼王朝统治者得以宣称比其他同位于安纳托利亚的突厥竞争对手拥有更高贵的血统[9]。
由于鄂图曼帝国早年的历史资料往往有多种不同说法,让历史学界很难从鄂图曼人传述的奥斯曼一世诸多事绩中,区分出哪些是史实而那些部分则仅是神话传说[27]。根据其中一则轶闻,奥斯曼有一位名叫敦达尔的叔叔,奥斯曼曾在早年担任首领时与他的叔叔发生过争吵。当时奥斯曼希望攻打信仰基督教的比莱吉克当地领主,但是敦达尔却反对侄子的决定,敦达尔认为他们已有够多的敌人需要应付,不必再另外与基督徒结仇。奥斯曼将敦达尔的异议视为对自己首领权威的挑战,因此用弓箭射杀了自己的叔叔[28]。这场事件并未被记录于日后众多的鄂图曼史书中,假如这则故事为真,意味著奥斯曼杀害他叔叔的事情可能被刻意地掩盖,以避免鄂图曼帝国的创始者背负谋杀家庭成员的污名。这则故事也可能象征著鄂图曼人与他们基督徒邻居关系产生重大变化,鄂图曼人从过往与基督徒和平相处的政策,开始转为更加积极的征服与占领手段[29]。
配偶
编辑儿子
编辑- 阿拉丁帕夏-拉比雅·芭拉可敦所生,约于1331年逝世
- 奥尔汗一世-玛尔可敦所生[31]
- 乔班贝伊(Çoban Bey)[32],安葬在瑟于特[33]
- 梅利克贝伊(Melik Bey)[32],安葬在瑟于特[33]
- 哈米德贝伊(Hamid Bey)[32],安葬在瑟于特[33]
- 帕扎鲁贝伊(Pazarlu Bey)[32],安葬在瑟于特[33]
女儿
编辑- 法蒂玛(Fatma)[32]
图集
编辑-
奥斯曼加齐攻占拜占庭人的堡垒
-
奥斯曼号召加齐战士们投入战斗
-
奥斯曼贝伊,绘于十九世纪
-
奥斯曼加齐
-
制于十八世纪时的奥斯曼雕像
相关条目
编辑参考文献
编辑- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Kermeli, Eugenia. Osman I. Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (编). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. 2009: 444.
Reliable information regarding Osman is scarce. His birth date is unknown and his symbolic significance as the father of the dynasty has encouraged the development of mythic tales regarding the ruler’s life and origins, however, historians agree that before 1300, Osman was simply one among a number of Turkoman tribal leaders operating in the Sakarya region.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 16.
By the time of Osman's death (1323 or 1324)...
- ^ Heath W. Lowry. The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany: SUNY Press. 2003: 153 [2018-11-09]. ISBN 978-0-7914-8726-6. (原始内容存档于2020-09-23).
- ^ The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1999, Donald Quataert, page 4, 2005
- ^ Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: xii.
There is still not one authentic written document known from the time of ʿOsmān, and there are not many from the fourteenth century altogether.
- ^ Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 93.
- ^ Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. Basic Books. 2005: 6. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
Modern historians attempt to sift historical fact from the myths contained in the later stories in which the Ottoman chroniclers accounted for the origins of the dynasty
- ^ Imber, Colin. Elizabeth Zachariadou , 编. The Ottoman Emirate (1300-1389). Rethymnon: Crete University Press. 1991: 75.
Almost all the traditional tales about Osman Gazi are fictitious. The best thing a modern historian can do is to admit frankly that the earliest history of the Ottomans is a black hole. Any attempt to fill this hole will result simply in more fables.
- ^ 9.0 9.1
Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 122.
That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it.
- Lowry, Heath. The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. 2003: 78. ISBN 0-7914-5636-6.
Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that...
- Lindner, Rudi Paul. Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Indiana University Press. 1983: 10.
In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kayı of the Oğuz tribe.
- Lowry, Heath. The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. 2003: 78. ISBN 0-7914-5636-6.
- ^ Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 124.
- ^ Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. Basic Books. 2005: 12.
Beyond the likelihood that the first Ottoman sultan was a historical figure, a Turcoman Muslim marcher-lord of the Byzantine frontier in north-west Anatolia whose father may have been called Ertuğrul, there is little other biographical information about Osman.
- ^ Murphey, Rhoads. Exploring Ottoman Sovereignty: Tradition, Image, and Practice in the Ottoman Imperial Household, 1400-1800. London: Continuum. 2008: 24. ISBN 978-1-84725-220-3.
- ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Stanford Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge: University Press, 1976), vol. 1 ISBN 9780521291637, p. 13
- ^ Fleet, Kate. The rise of the Ottomans. Fierro, Maribel (编). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2010: 313. ISBN 978-0-521-83957-0.
The origins of the Ottomans are obscure. According to legend, largely invented later as part of the process of legitimising Ottoman rule and providing the Ottomans with a suitably august past, it was the Saljuq ruler ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn who bestowed rule on the Ottomans.
- ^ Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power 2. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2009: 8.
- Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 129.
Of [military undertakings] we know nothing with certainty until the Battle of Bapheus, Osman's triumphant confrontation with a Byzantine force in 1301 (or 1302), which is the first datable incident in his life.
- Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 129.
- ^ 16.0 16.1 Shaw, Ottoman Empire, p. 14
- ^ Kermeli, Eugenia. Osman I. Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (编). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. 2009: 445.
Apart from these chronicles, there are later sources that begin to establish Osman as a mythic figure. From the 16th century onward a number of dynastic myths are used by Ottoman and Western authors, endowing the founder of the dynasty with more exalted origins. Among these is recounted the famous “dream of Osman” which is supposed to have taken place while he was a guest in the house of a sheikh, Edebali. [...] This highly symbolic narrative should be understood, however, as an example of eschatological mythology required by the subsequent success of the Ottoman emirate to surround the founder of the dynasty with supernatural vision, providential success, and an illustrious genealogy.
- Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Dynastic Myth. Turcica. 1987, 19: 7–27.
The attraction of Aşıkpasazade's story was not only that it furnished an episode proving that God had bestowed rulership on the Ottomans, but also that it provided, side by side with the physical descent from Oguz Khan, a spiritual descent. [...] Hence the physical union of Osman with a saint's daughter gave the dynasty a spiritual legitimacy and became, after the 1480s, an integral feature of dynastic mythology.
- Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Dynastic Myth. Turcica. 1987, 19: 7–27.
- ^ Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. Basic Books. 2005: 2., citing Lindner, Rudi P. Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 1983: 37. ISBN 0-933070-12-8.
- ^ Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. Basic Books. 2006: 2. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
First communicated in this form in the later fifteenth century, a century and a half after Osman's death in about 1323, this dream became one of the most resilient founding myths of the empire.
- ^ Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 132–3.
- ^ 21.0 21.1 Steven Runciman, The Fall of Constantinople 1453 (Cambridge: University Press, 1969) p. 32
- ^ Runciman, The Fall of Constantinople, p. 33
- ^ Frederick William Hasluck, [First published 1929], "XLVI. The Girding of the Sultan", in Margaret Hasluck, Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans II, pp. 604–622. ISBN 978-1-4067-5887-0
- ^ Frank R. C. Bagley, The Last Great Muslim Empires (Leiden: Brill, 1969), p. 2 ISBN 978-90-04-02104-4
- ^ Girding on the Sword of Osman (PDF). The New York Times. 1876-09-18: 2 [2009-04-19]. ISSN 0362-4331. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-03-04).
- ^ Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 10, 37.
- ^ Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 105.
- Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. Basic Books. 2006: 6. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
Modern historians attempt to sift historical fact from the myths contained in the later stories in which the Ottoman chroniclers accounted for the origins of the dynasty
- Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. Basic Books. 2006: 6. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
- ^ Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 105.
- ^ Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. 1995: 107–8.
- ^ Duducu, Jem. The Sultans: The Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Rulers and Their World: A 600-Year History. Amberley Publishing. 2018-01-15 [2018-11-09]. ISBN 9781445668611. (原始内容存档于2019-09-13) (英语).
- ^ Lowry, Heath. The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. 2003: 153.
- ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 Lowry, Heath. The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. 2003: 73.
- ^ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Ertuğrul Gazi ve Halime Sultan Türbesi. [2018-11-09]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-08).
参考书目
编辑- Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. New York: Basic Books. 2005. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
- Fleet, Kate. The rise of the Ottomans. Maribel Fierro (编). The New Cambridge History of Islam 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2010: 313–331. ISBN 978-0-521-83957-0.
- Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Dynastic Myth. Turcica. 1987, 19: 7–27.
- Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power 2. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2009. ISBN 978-0-230-57451-9.
- Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1995. ISBN 978-0-520-20600-7.
- Kermeli, Eugenia. Osman I. Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (编). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts on File. 2009: 444–6. ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1.
- Lindner, Rudi P. Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 1983. ISBN 0-933070-12-8.
- Lowry, Heath. The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany: SUNY Press. 2003. ISBN 0-7914-5636-6.
- Murphey, Rhoads. Exploring Ottoman Sovereignty: Tradition, Image, and Practice in the Ottoman Imperial Household, 1400-1800. London: Continuum. 2008. ISBN 978-1-84725-220-3.
- Zachariadou, Elizabeth (编). The Ottoman Emirate (1300-1389). Rethymnon: Crete University Press. 1991.
外部链接
编辑奥斯曼一世 出生于:出生日期不明逝世于:1323年或1324年
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统治者头衔 | ||
新头衔 |
鄂图曼帝国苏丹(贝伊) 约1299年 - 1323年或1324年 |
继任者: 奥尔汗一世 |