共產主義史

共產主義史，即共產主義自誕生以來的歷史涵蓋了以財富、經濟產業和財產的共有制為核心原則的各種各樣的意識形態及其分支，以及諸多政治運動^[1]。多數現代形式的共產主義都至少在名義上植根於馬克思主義，即卡爾·馬克思和弗里德里希·恩格斯在19世紀構想的一種理論和方法^[2]。馬克思主義隨後在歐洲大部分地區獲得了廣泛追隨者，其激進支持者在整個19世紀後半葉於該大陸發動了多次失敗卻影響重大的革命^[1]。許多拒絕武裝革命但信奉馬克思主義的集體財產和無階級社會理想的共產黨也在同一時期大量成立^[1]。

儘管馬克思主義理論認為工業社會是最適合進行社會革命的地方（無論是通過和平過渡還是武力反抗），但共產主義卻大多在諸如中華民國等貧困普遍存在的欠發達國家當中取得了成功^[2]。1917年，布爾什維克黨在俄國革命期間奪取政權並隨後於1922年建立了蘇聯，即世界上第一個自稱實施社會主義制度的國家^[3]。布爾什維克黨人徹底接受了無產階級國際主義與世界革命的概念，將他們的鬥爭視為國際性而非純粹的地區性事業^[2]^[3]。這對共產主義在20世紀的傳播產生了巨大影響，因為蘇聯在二戰後於中東歐大量成立馬列主義的新政府，並間接支持了其他美洲、亞洲和非洲國家的革命^[1]。這一政策的關鍵是共產國際，其成立的初衷是幫助和協助世界各地的共產黨並促進革命的發生^[3]。這是冷戰期間緊張局勢的一個主要原因，因為美國及其軍事盟友將共產主義的全球傳播視同於以代理人方式進行的蘇聯擴張主義^[4]。

到1985年，世界上三分之一的人口處在某種形式下的馬克思列寧主義政府體制的統治之下^[1]。但眾多共產主義者和馬克思主義理論家們之間就這些國家中的多數者是否能被真正視為馬克思主義這點上存在着激烈的爭論，因為馬克思主義體系的許多基本要素已被不少國家所改變或修訂^[4]。共產主義在20世紀80年代末至90年代初期間迅速衰落，包括1991年蘇聯解體以及剩餘的多數馬列主義國家幾年內完全否定或廢除了這一意識形態^[5]。後來的歷史學家對這種衰落提出了不同的解釋，包括馬列主義政府未能實現共產主義社會的理想，這些國家中威權主義日益增長的總體趨勢的存在，它們遭受過度官僚主義的困擾，經濟效率低下等等^[1]^[6]^[7]。截至21世紀，僅有少數以共產主義為目標的國家得以存留，包括中國、古巴、老撾、朝鮮（非馬列主義）和越南^[1]^[8]。除朝鮮之外，所有這些國家都在保持一黨統治的同時開始允許更多的經濟競爭^[6]。

參見

註釋

參考文獻

^ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 ^1.3 ^1.4 ^1.5 ^1.6 Lansford, Thomas. Communism. New York: Cavendish Square Publishing. 2007: 9–24, 36–44. ISBN 978-0761426288.
^ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Leopold, David. Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc; Sargent, Lyman Tower , 編. The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2015: 20–38. ISBN 978-0198744337.
^ ^3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 Schwarzmantle, John. Breuilly, John , 編. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2017: 643–651. ISBN 978-0198768203.
^ ^4.0 ^4.1 MacFarlane, S. Neil. Katz, Mark , 編. The USSR and Marxist Revolutions in the Third World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990: 6–11. ISBN 978-0812216202.
^ Dunn, Dennis. A History of Orthodox, Islamic, and Western Christian Political Values. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. 2016: 126–131. ISBN 978-3319325668.
^ ^6.0 ^6.1 Ball, Terence; Dagger, Richard (編). Communism. Encyclopædia Britannica revised. 2019 [10 June 2020]. 已忽略未知參數|orig-date= (幫助)
^ Djilas, Milovan. The Legacy of Communism in Eastern Europe. The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs. 1991, 15 (1): 83–92. ISSN 1046-1868. JSTOR 45290119.
^ Shaoguang, Wang. Political change and democracy in China (PDF). （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於9 September 2017）.

書目

Billington, James H. Fire in the Minds of Men: Origins of the Revolutionary Faith. Transaction Publishers. 2011. ISBN 978-1-4128-1401-0.
Brown, Archie. The Rise and Fall of Communism. HarperCollins. 2009. ISBN 978-0-06-188548-8.
Fried, Albert; Sanders, Ronald. Socialist Thought: A Documentary History. Columbia University Press. 1992. ISBN 978-0-231-08265-5 –透過Google Books.
Getty, J. Arch.; Manning, Roberta T. (編). Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives. Cambridge. 1993.
Gorlizki, Yoram; Khlevniuk, Oleg. Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle, 1945–1953. Oxford University Press. 2004: 3ff. ISBN 9780195165814. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195165814.001.0001.
Kautsky, Karl. Communism in Central Europe in the Time of the Reformation. T. F. Unwin. 1897 –透過Google Books.
Lindemann, Albert S. A History of European Socialism. Yale University Press. 1983. ISBN 978-0-300-03246-8 –透過Google Books.
Lowy, Michael. The Theory of Revolution in the Young Marx. Brill. 2020. ISBN 978-90-04-44160-6. OCLC 1239987105 –透過Google Books.
Major, Patrick. The Death of the KPD: Communism and Anti-Communism in West Germany, 1945–1956. Oxford University Press. 1997.
Priestland, David. The Red Flag: Communism and the Making of the Modern World. Penguin Books. 2010. ISBN 978-0-14-029520-7. OCLC 762107381.
Service, Robert. Comrades!: A History of World Communism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-674-02530-1 –透過Google Books.
van Ree, Erik. Boundaries of Utopia – Imagining Communism from Plato to Stalin. Routledge. 2015. ISBN 978-1-134-48533-8 –透過Google Books.

拓展閱讀

Books

Borkenau, Franz. World communism; a history of the Communist International (1938) online
Crozier, Brian. The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire (1999), long detailed popular history
Davin, Delia. Mao: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford UP. 2013. ISBN 9780191654039.
Deakin, F. W. ed. A history of world communism (1975) online
Furet, François. The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century (1999).
Garver, John W. China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic (2nd ed. 2018) comprehensive scholarly history. excerpt
Harvey, Robert, A Short History of Communism (2004), ISBN 0-312-32909-1.
Kotkin, Stephen. Stalin, Volume I: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928 (2014) highly detailed scholarly biography; vol 2 Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941 (2017)
Pathak, Rakesh, and Yvonne Berliner. Communism in Crisis 1976–89 (2012)
Pipes, Richard. Communism: A History (2003)
Pons, Silvio and Robert Service, eds. A Dictionary of 20th-Century Communism (Princeton University Press, 2010). 944 pp. ISBN 978-0-691-13585-4 online review
Priestland, David. The Red Flag: A History of Communism (2010)
Sandle, Mark. Communism (2nd ed. 2011), short introduction
Service, Robert. Lenin: A Biography (2000) excerpt and text search; also online
Service, Robert. Stalin (2005) online
Seton-Watson, Hugh. From Lenin to Khrushchev, the history of world communism (1954) online
Taubman, William. Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (2004) excerpt and text search; also complete text
Taubman, William. Gorbachev: His Life and Times (2018)
Tucker, Robert C. Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929 (1973); Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1929–1941. (1990) online ed. 互聯網檔案館的存檔，存檔日期May 25, 2012，. a standard biography; online at ACLS e-books
Ulam, Adam B. Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–73 (1974) online

Journals

American Communist History (United States)
Communisme (France)
Twentieth Century Communism (United Kingdom)

Primary sources

Daniels, Robert V., ed. A Documentary History of Communism in Russia: From Lenin to Gorbachev (1993)
Daniels, Robert V. ed. A Documentary History of Communism: Communism and the World (1985)
Gruber, Helmut. International Communism in the Era of Lenin: A Documentary History (1967)

Memoirs

Chambers, Whittaker. Witness . New York: Random House. 1952.
Davis, Hope Hale. Great Day Coming: A Memoir of the 1930s. Steerforth Press. 1994. ISBN 9781883642174 –透過Google Books.
Tchernavin, Tatiana. Escape From The Soviets. 由Natalie Duddington (under the pseudonym N. Alexander)翻譯. E. P. Dutton and Co. 1934.
Ulanovskaya, Maya; Ulanovskaya, Nadezhda. The Family Story. 由Hoffman, Stefani翻譯. Lulu. 2016. ISBN 9781326667573 –透過Google Books.

Animation

Mapping the fall of communism

[Lansford-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 ^1.3 ^1.4 ^1.5 ^1.6 Lansford, Thomas. Communism. New York: Cavendish Square Publishing. 2007: 9–24, 36–44. ISBN 978-0761426288.

[Oxford1-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Leopold, David. Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc; Sargent, Lyman Tower , 編. The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2015: 20–38. ISBN 978-0198744337.

[Oxford2-3] 3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 Schwarzmantle, John. Breuilly, John , 編. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2017: 643–651. ISBN 978-0198768203.

[Revolutions-4] 4.0 ^4.1 MacFarlane, S. Neil. Katz, Mark , 編. The USSR and Marxist Revolutions in the Third World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990: 6–11. ISBN 978-0812216202.

[Dunn-5] Dunn, Dennis. A History of Orthodox, Islamic, and Western Christian Political Values. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. 2016: 126–131. ISBN 978-3319325668.

[Ball_&_Dagger_2019-6] 6.0 ^6.1 Ball, Terence; Dagger, Richard (編). Communism. Encyclopædia Britannica revised. 2019 [10 June 2020]. 已忽略未知參數|orig-date= (幫助)

[7] Djilas, Milovan. The Legacy of Communism in Eastern Europe. The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs. 1991, 15 (1): 83–92. ISSN 1046-1868. JSTOR 45290119.

[8] Shaoguang, Wang. Political change and democracy in China (PDF). （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於9 September 2017）.

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