同化
文化同化(Cultural assimilation),又译同化政策,指的是一批个体,以自愿或者非自愿的形式接受新的思考模式、习俗、语言和文字。一般来说,同化主要指占据统治阶级的民族用他们的文化取代被统治民族的一系列过程,但也有非常多和平同化的情况。“同化”原本是生物学中的概念,参见同化 (生物学),属于所有生命都会发生的正常现象,但后来被社会学借用为本条目所指的意思。
在同化的过程中,少数群体的文化会和多数群体越来越接近,直到完全同化完毕,其价值观、行为和信仰的一部份可能率先发生重大改变[1]。
文化上同化包括“全面同化(full assimilation)”和“强制同化(forced assimilation)”。全面同化是最普遍的,因为它没有强制性,和生物学的同化一样属于自动发生的现象[2]。
在文化同化过程中,少数群体必须掌握应某个语言、化妆为某种外表或者达到某个特定的经济水平才能融入当地文化,并展开正常就业,而其私人的习俗则会更慢的改变[3]。
某些类型的文化同化其实不能算“同化”,顶多是“文化适应”。少数群体的文化一定要完全融入到主流文化中,其少数文化的特征变得极度不明显或完全消失,这才能达到“同化”的标准。而在其他类型的文化适应中,例如和多元社区成员交流、吃多数群体的美食、摆放某一文化的装饰品、做出符合当地法律的行为等,这些都是文化适应。适应者能保留其大量原始文化,他们只是选择性的采用主流文化的生活模式,但并没做到和主流文化一致[4][5]。而在另一种说法中,认为“文化适应”只是“文化同化”的前置阶段,所以文化适应还是要归类于同化[1]。纵观历史,文化同化的模式千奇百怪,有自愿的,也有非自愿的[6]。
同化还可能涉及所谓的“加法型文化适应”,这是指一个人在不没有忘记祖先文化的前提下,同时具备主流文化的大量知识,以此丰富自己的人生眼界[4]。
定义
编辑也被称之为“内化”,指非主流团体被主流团体同化;非主流团体成员习得主流团体的特质,而逐渐被接受成为主流团体的一部分。同化被同化者通常是外地来的移民或少数民族。由于生活在非原本社会中或与其接触,慢慢失去大部份原来的文化特点;并接受非原本社会的特点。变化直到与非原本社会的成员无法区分为止。
同化并不指种族上或其他生理上的融合,虽然这种融合与同化有莫大关联。
世界各地的同化情况
编辑有学者认为彻底同化很少见,以欧洲为例,虽然当地各民族历经多次被征服及强制同化,但却没有因此融为一体,反而分化出更多民族。
而比较值得注意的同化例子是美国,例如美国的黑人,多数原是来自非洲的黑奴,现在极大多数已忘却本身文化;另外移民美国的欧洲各国人也多数在两三代内几乎完全被同化。
在古代中国,秦始皇于公元前221年统一中国后,下令书同文,命李斯依据周朝的大篆,编成小篆,通行全国,原本有不同文字的六国遗民被同化。
中国满汉融合的历史从清朝入关就展开,如剃发易服之后汉人穿着改为马褂和袍子,以及汉人发型被满化。爱新觉罗氏的皇帝没有一个不会说汉语的,如康熙、雍正、乾隆等;另外羁留汉地的满族在民国成立之后普遍文化程度较东北满族高,同时,这种融合也不是单向的,即不能认为满人完全蜕变为汉人,实际上汉人在很多习俗、行为等方面也被满人影响。
同化意愿和文化冲击
编辑美国
编辑1880 年至 1920 年间,美国接纳了约 2,400 万移民[7]。移民的增加可以归因于许多历史变化。 21世纪初也标志著一个大规模的移民时代,社会学家再次试图理解移民对社会和移民本身的影响。根据普遍的观点,同化是来自另一个群体或个人的“解释和融合的过程”。这可能包括记忆、行为和情绪。透过分享他们的经验和历史,移民融入了共同的文化生活。[7]
在 1607 年至 1776 年的殖民时期,人们透过两种截然不同的途径移民到英国殖民地:自愿移民和强迫移民。那些自愿移民到殖民地的人是被英属北美廉价土地、高薪和思想自由的诱惑所吸引[8]。后半期,强迫移民的最大人口是非洲奴隶[9]。与其他强迫移民如罪犯不同,奴隶没有可能获得自由,尽管一些奴隶在美国内战前的几个世纪中被释放[10]。既定方式的移民历史悠久,这意味著透过传统门户而来的移民在阶级、种族和民族等级方面的地位更加结构化或固定。而另一方面,新门户的移民历史不久,所以经新门户而来的移民在阶级、种族和民族等级方面的地位不太明确,他们在定义自己的地位方面可能有更大的影响力。其次,新门户的规模可能会影响移民同化。较小的门户可能会影响移民和本土出生的人之间的种族隔离程度。第三,制度安排的差异可能影响移民同化。与新门户不同,传统门户通常已设立了许多帮助移民的机构,如法律援助、相关部门和社会组织。[7]
此外,移民进入美国并融入美国,他们已占自 2000 年以来美国人口成长的 29%[11]。在过去的二十年里,人们对最近抵达美国的移民进行了密切的研究。结果显示了移民的驱动因素包括公民身份、住房所有权、英语语言能力、工作状况和赚取更好的收入[12]。
加拿大
编辑加拿大的多元文化历史可以追溯到 16 世纪至 19 世纪的欧洲殖民时期,当时有欧洲民族移民到当地的浪潮。 20世纪,印度人、中国人和日本人是当地最大的移民群体[13]。
20世纪至今:从同化到融合的转变
编辑加拿大仍然是世界上移民人口最多的国家之一。 2016 年人口普查记录有 750 万有证移民,占全国总人口的五分之一[14]。焦点已从文化同化的言论转向文化融合[15]。与同化主义相反,融合旨在保留少数群体社会的根源,同时仍允许与主流文化顺利共存[13]。
世界各地的原住民同化
编辑澳洲
编辑对澳洲原住民实施“保护”政策(将他们与白人社会分开[16])的立法是在澳洲联邦成立之前,在澳洲的一些州和领地还是殖民地时通过的,如维多利亚州(1867年)、西澳大利亚州(1886 年)和昆士兰州(1897 年)。联邦成立后,新南威尔斯州于 1909 年制定了政策,南澳大利亚州和北领地(当时处于南澳大利亚州的控制之下)亦于 1910-11 年制定了相关政策。当时政府把创建了原住民迁入传教站和政府管理的原住民保护区。政府立法限制他们的行动,禁止饮酒并规范就业。这些政策在 20 世纪上半叶得到了强化(当时人们意识到原住民不会灭绝或被白人社会完全吸收[16]),例如 1953 年《福利条例》的规定,其中原住民被国家监护。 “部分原住民”(称为半种姓)儿童被强行从父母身边带走,以便以欧洲方式教育他们;其中女孩经常被训练成家庭佣人[17]。随后保护政策终止,同化政策取而代之。他们提议应该允许“纯血统”澳洲土著“消亡”,同时鼓励“混血种姓”融入白人社区。这些政策驱使原住民被认为不如白人,原住民经常在以白人为主导的城镇遭受歧视,并且不得不搬家以寻找工作[16][18]。
1910 年至 1970 年间,几代原住民儿童被从父母身边带走,被称为“被偷走的一代”。该政策对个人、家庭和原住民文化造成了持久的伤害[16]。
1961 年在坎培拉举行的原住民福利会议上,澳洲联邦和州政府部长为政府环境制定了澳洲原住民“同化”的官方定义。1961 年 4 月,时任联邦领土部长海斯勒克通知众议院[19]:
在所有澳洲政府看来,同化政策意味著所有原住民和部分原住民最终都应获得与其他澳洲人相同的生活方式,并作为单一澳洲社区的成员生活,享有相同的权利和特权,接受与其他澳洲人一样,承担相同的责任,遵守相同的习俗,并受到相同的信仰、希望和忠诚的影响。因此,对原住民和半原住民采取的任何特殊措施都被视为临时措施,并非基于肤色,而是为了满足他们对特殊照顾和帮助的需要,以保护他们免受突然变化的不良影响,并协助他们过渡。
加拿大
编辑在 19 世纪和 20 世纪,一直持续到 1996 年、最后一所加拿大印第安人寄宿学校关闭为止,加拿大政府在基督教会的帮助下开始了同化运动,强行同化加拿大原住民。政府透过条约和使用武力巩固了对原住民土地的权力,最终将大多数原住民隔离到保留地。婚姻习俗和精神仪式被禁止,精神领袖被监禁。此外,加拿大政府也建立了广泛的寄宿学校系统来同化儿童。原住民儿童与家人分离,不再被允许在这些新学校表达他们的文化。他们不准说自己的语言或实践自己的传统,否则会受到惩罚。基督教会犯下许多暴力和性虐待案件。加拿大真相及和解委员会的结论是,这种行为相当于文化灭绝。学校积极努力让孩子远离他们的文化根源。学生被禁止说自己的母语,经常受到虐待,毕业后被政府包办婚姻。加拿大政府的明确目标是透过天主教和圣公会,将原住民完全同化到更广泛的加拿大社会中,并摧毁他们本土历史的所有痕迹[20]。
巴西
编辑2019 年 1 月,新当选的巴西总统雅伊尔·博索纳罗剥夺了原住民事务局识别和划定原住民土地的责任。他认为这些领土上的孤立人口非常少,并提议将他们融入更大的巴西社会[21]。据生存国际组织称,“将原住民土地划界的责任从原住民事务局手中移交给农业部,实际上是向巴西部落人民宣战。”[22]
墨西哥和秘鲁
编辑南美洲文化同化常被认为主要开始于欧洲人向美洲探险和殖民,并通常被认为始于 1492 年,当时欧洲人开始探索大西洋寻找“印度群岛”,最终发现了美洲。随著劳动力、自然资源(即木材、铜、金、银和农产品)等资源涌入欧洲,欧洲仍然对美洲原住民人口占主导地位,但这些收益是片面的,因为原住民群体并未从与殖民列强的贸易协定中受益[23]。除此之外,葡萄牙和西班牙等殖民宗主国要求南美洲的殖民地融入欧洲习俗,例如遵循神圣罗马天主教会、接受西班牙语或葡萄牙语而不是土著语言以及接受欧洲式政府[24]。
透过强而有力的同化政策,西班牙等殖民国家使用暴力手段来维护对原住民的文化统治[25]。一个例子发生在1519年,当时西班牙探险家埃尔南·科尔特斯到达特诺奇蒂特兰——原阿兹特克帝国在墨西哥的首都。在发现阿兹特克人实行活人祭祀后,科尔特斯杀死了阿兹特克高级官员,并囚禁了阿兹特克统治者蒙特祖玛二世[26]。不久之后,科尔特斯开始建立联盟,以恢复特诺奇提特兰的权力,并将其更名为墨西哥城。如果不透过谋杀和传播传染病夺取权力,西班牙征服者(数量相对较少)就无法占领墨西哥并使许多人皈依天主教及变成奴隶。虽然西班牙人在殖民主义时期影响了南美洲原住民的语言和宗教文化同化,但许多原住民语言,例如印加帝国的语言克丘亚语,至今仍在秘鲁等地使用。2017年,使用克丘亚语的秘鲁人口为 380 万人[27]。
纽西兰
编辑从 18 世纪末开始,在新西兰的殖民化过程中,原住民毛利人首先自发性地融入了欧洲访客和定居者的文化。基因同化很早就开始并持续进行——1961 年纽西兰人口普查仅将 62.2% 的毛利人归类为“纯血统毛利人”[28]。语言同化也很早就发生并持续发生:欧洲定居者采用并改编了毛利语单词,而欧洲语言影响了毛利语词汇(可能还有音韵学)[29]。
在19世纪,殖民政府事实上鼓励同化政策[30];到20世纪末,政策有利于双文化发展[31]。毛利人很早就接受了欧洲物质文化的某些面向(金属[32]、火枪[33]、马铃薯[34]相对较快)。思想-例如写作[35]、基督教[36]、君主制、宗派主义、日常欧洲风格的服装[37],或对奴隶制的反对[38]的引进则较慢。后来的发展(社会主义[39]、反殖民主义理论[40]、新时代思想[41]等)证明同化更具国际流动性。一种长期存在的观点认为,毛利人的地方自治主义并没有被欧洲风格的个人主义所取代[42]。
参见
编辑参考资料
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- ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Waters, Mary C.; Jiménez, Tomás R. Assessing Immigrant Assimilation: New Empirical and Theoretical Challenges. Annual Review of Sociology. 2005, 31 (1): 105–125. S2CID 9815854. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100026.
- ^ Spickard, Paul. Almost All Aliens: Immigration, Race, and Colonialism in American History and Identity. New York: Routledge. 2007: 50–51.
- ^ An Overview of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. Brewminate: A Bold Blend of News and Ideas. 2018-07-25 [2022-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2023-06-04) (美国英语).
- ^ A Brief History of U.S. Immigration Policy from the Colonial Period to the Present Day. www.cato.org. [2022-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2024-05-21).
- ^ Chapter 5: U.S. Foreign-Born Population Trends. Pew Research Center's Hispanic Trends Project. 2015-09-28 [2022-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2024-02-01) (美国英语).
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- ^ 13.0 13.1 Griffith, Andrew. Building a Mosaic: The Evolution of Canada's Approach to Immigrant Integration. migrationpolicy.org. 2017-10-31 [2018-12-10]. (原始内容存档于2024-01-21) (英语).
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- ^ Hasluck, Paul. The Policy of Assimilation: Decisions of Commonwealth and Statement Ministers at the Native Welfare Conference, Canberra, January 26th and 27th, 1961 (PDF). Canberra: Commonwealth Government Printer. 1961 [2024-07-01]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2024-03-27) –通过AIATSIS Library.
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- ^ Brazil's new president makes it harder to define Indigenous lands. Global News. January 2, 2019 [2024-07-01]. (原始内容存档于2019-01-19).
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- ^ The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. [2024-07-01]. (原始内容存档于2024-01-15).
- ^ Gabbert, Wolfgang. The longue durée of Colonial Violence in Latin America. Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung. 2012, 37 (3 (141)): 254–275. ISSN 0172-6404. JSTOR 41636608.
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- ^ New Zealand. Department of Statistics. Population Census, 1961 10. 1962: 23 [16 July 2020].
Full-blood Maoris totalled 103,987 [...], or 62 2 per cent of the Maori population as it is defined for the purposes of the census.
- ^ Thomason, Sarah Grey. Language Contact. Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Georgetown University Press. 2001: 135 [16 July 2020]. ISBN 9780878408542.
It is possible that, although older English loanwords were nativized into Maori phonology, newer loanwords are no longer being nativized, with the eventual result being a changed Maori phonological system.
- ^ Hoskins, Te Kawehau; McKinley, Elizabeth. New Zealand: Maori Education in Aotearoa. Crossley, Michael; Hancock, Greg; Sprague, Terra (编). Education in Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific. Education Around the World. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. 2015: 159 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9781472503589.
The gaping disparity in outcomes between indigenous Māori students and Pākehā (New Zealand Europeans) has its genesis in the colonial provision of education for Māori driven by a social policy of cultural assimilation and social stratification for over 100 years.
- ^
Hoskins, Te Kawehau; McKinley, Elizabeth. New Zealand: Maori Education in Aotearoa. Crossley, Michael; Hancock, Greg; Sprague, Terra (编). Education in Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific. Education Around the World. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. 2015: 159 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9781472503589.
From the 1970s, Maori activism across the social field has led to [...] a formal social policy of biculturalism and iwi (tribes) positioned as partners with the state.
- ^
Neich, Roger. Carved Histories: Rotorua Ngati Tarawhai Woodcarving. Auckland: Auckland University Press. 2001: 147 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9781869402570.
The change from stone to metal tools occurred at different times in different areas of the North Island, depending on the amount of contact with European visitors. In the coastal areas this happened very early, starting with the metal obtained from Captain Cook's men and other eighteenth-century explorers such as Jean-Francois-Marie de Durville and Marion du Fresne, followed very soon after by the sealers and whalers. Away from the coasts, the first metals arrived later, in the early nineteenth century, usually as trade items brought by missionary explorers.
- ^ Smith, Ian. Sojourning settlers. Pākehā Settlements in a Māori World: New Zealand Archaeology 1769–1860. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books. 2019: 1292020 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9780947492496.
It appears that firearms were first acquired by Māori somewhere in the northern North Island about 1806 or 1807.
- ^ Harris, Warwick; Kapoor, Promila (编). Nga Mahi Maori O Te Wao Nui a Tane: Contributions to an International Workshop on Ethnobotany, Te Rehua Marae, Christchurch, New Zealand, 22–26 February 1988. Botany Division, DSIR. 1988: 181 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9780477025799.
The first record of potatoes being grown in New Zealand is dated 1769. [...] The Maori community were quick to see the advantages the potato had over the kumara: its greater cold tolerance, better storage qualities and higher yields.
- ^ McKenzie, Donald Francis. Oral Culture, Literacy & Print in early New Zealand: The Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: Victoria University Press. 1985: 20 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9780864730435.
In the early 1830s we see the hesitant beginnings of letter writing in written requests for baptism [...]. The effective use of letters for political purposes was many years away. Nor did printing of itself become a re-expressive tool for the Maori until the late 1850s.
- ^ Crosby, Alfred W. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900. Studies in Environment and History 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986: 2462004 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9781107394049.
There were no Maori conversions up to 1825, and only a few - usually of the moribund - between 1825 and 1830.
- ^ King, Michael. The Penguin History of New Zealand. ReadHowYouWant.com. 2003: 2862011 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9781459623750.
Traditional Maori clothing had gone out of general use by the 1850s (and much earlier in communities associated with whaling and trading and those close to European settlements), though it would still be donned, especially cloaks, for ceremonial occasions and cultural performances. As the European settler population had begun to swell in the 1840s, so European clothes, new and second-hand, had become widely available along with blankets, which had the advantage of being usable as clothing and/or bedding.
- ^ Petrie, Hazel. Outcasts of the Gods? The Struggle over Slavery in Maori New Zealand. Auckland University Press. 2015 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9781775587859. (原始内容存档于2023-07-31).
- ^ Stoddart-Smith, Carrie. Radical kaupapa Maori politics. Godfery, Morgan (编). The Interregnum: Rethinking New Zealand. BWB Text 39. Bridget Williams Books. 2016: 38–39 [15 July 2020]. ISBN 9780947492656.
[...] different western ideas may complement the diverse perspectives of kaupapa Māori frameworks, but it would be an error to construe such ideas as essential to them. Many Māori drive a socialist agenda, for example, and although there are commonalities with some aspects of tikanga Māori, socialism as a political philosophy should not be seen to be implied by Māori narratives.
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Buick-Constable, John. Indigenous State Relations in Aotearoa/New Zealand: A Contractual Approach to Self-determination. Hocking, Barbara Ann (编). Unfinished Constitutional Business?: Rethinking Indigenous Self-determination. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. 2005: 120 [16 July 2020]. ISBN 9780855754662.
From the 1970s, [...] in the wake of a changed international climate of human rights and anti-colonialism, Indigenous peoples around the world sought a reinvigoration of their Indigenous identity and a renewal of their Indigenous self-determination. [...] Largely in tandem with these trends has been a renaissance of the theory and practice of contractualism [...]. The history of Maori-Crown relations in Aotearoa/New Zealand is exemplary of this contractual approach in the struggles of Maori for self-determination historically and contemporaneously.
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O'Regan, Tipene. New Myths and Old Politics: The Waitangi Tribunal and the Challenge of Tradition. BWB Texts 17. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books. 2014 [16 July 2020]. ISBN 9781927131992.
[...] my Beaglehole Memorial Lecture of 1991 [...] was delivered at a time when hearings of the [Waitangi] Tribunal were becoming a battleground [...]. Māoridom itself was experiencing a remarkable efflorescence of freshly reconstructed group identities and New Age-style incorporations into Māori ethnic identity. The Waitaha movement emanating from within contemporary Ngāi Tahu was one of these.
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例子: Ward, Alan. Myths and Realities. A Show of Justice: Racial 'amalgamation' in Nineteenth Century New Zealand. Auckland University Press. 19742013 [16 July 2020]. ISBN 9781869405717.
It is often said that Western individualism is in conflict with Polynesian communalism [...]. It is hardly surprising that today Maori attitudes to the law appear more ambivalent than they did in the 1870s and 1880s.
- 《大英百科全书》:“同化”(assimilation)条目。