用戶:Cswquz/沙盒/科學
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 專題  科學史 |
科學分支即各個門類的科學，也稱作「科學領域」或「科學學科」，通常劃分為三大門類：
- 形式科學：研究形式系統，例如邏輯和數學里所研究的那些；使用先驗的方法論，不依賴於經驗證據。
- 自然科學：對自然現象的研究（包括物理學、化學、地質學、宇宙學及生物學等）。自然科學可分為兩大分支：物理科學及生命科學（或稱生物科學）。
- 社會科學：對人的行為的社會及文化方面進行的科學研究[1]。
自然科學與社會科學俱為經驗科學，意即其知識須基於可觀測現象，且必須能被其他研究者在相同條件下證實[2]。不過此種可證實性即使在一門科學學科內部也很可能標準不一[3][4]。
形式科學、自然科學以及社會科學組成基礎科學，是交叉科學學科及諸如工程學和醫學等應用科學的基礎。專門化的科學學科，如果從屬於多個門類，有可能包含其它科學學科的某些部分，不過也經常會擁有本學科獨門的術語及技能[5]。
形式科學
編輯形式科學是專注於研究形式系統的那些科學分支，如邏輯、數學、理論計算機科學、信息論、系統論、決策論、統計學以及理論語言學等。
Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world (empirical knowledge), but rather with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules. Hence there is disagreement on whether the formal sciences actually constitute a science. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific models dealing with observable reality,[6] and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences.
[與其它分支不同，形式科學不關心以現實世界中的觀測（經驗知識）為基礎所構建的理論的有效性，而只專注於研究基於定義和規則的形式系統的性質。因此，關於形式科學能否真正算作一類科學存在不同意見。但不管怎麼說，形式科學的方法對於構造和檢驗描述可觀測現實的科學模型來說至關重要，而且形式科學上的重大進展往往可以帶動經驗科學取得重大進展。]
邏輯
編輯Logic (from Greek: λογική，logikḗ，possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumentative)[7][8][註 1] is the systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (the conclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments.[9]
[邏輯 (from Greek: λογική，logikḗ，possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumentative)[7][8][註 1] is the systematic study of valid 推理規則, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (the 結論) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of 邏輯論證s.[9] ]
It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of the logical forms; the validity and soundness of deductive reasoning; the strength of inductive reasoning; the study of formal proofs and inference (including paradoxes and fallacies); and the study of syntax and semantics.
[ It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of the 邏輯形式s; the 有效性 and 健全性 of 演繹推理; the 強度 of 歸納推理; the study of 形式證明s and 推理 (including 悖論es and 謬誤es); and the study of 句法 and 語義學. ]
Historically, logic has been studied in philosophy (since ancient times) and mathematics (since the mid-19th century). More recently, logic has been studied in cognitive science, which draws on computer science, linguistics, philosophy and psychology, among other disciplines.
[ Historically, logic has been studied in 哲學 (since ancient times) and 數學 (since the mid-19th century). More recently, logic has been studied in 認知科學, which draws on 計算機科學, 語言學, philosophy and 心理學, among other disciplines. ]
(Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science. Logic examines general forms which arguments may take, which forms are valid, and which are fallacies. In philosophy, the study of logic figures in most major areas: epistemology, ethics, metaphysics. In mathematics and computer science, it is the study of valid inferences within some formal language.[10]
Logic is also studied in argumentation theory[11]。)
[邏輯 is the formal systematic study of the 原理s of valid 推理 and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of 哲學, 數學, 語義學, and 計算機科學. Logic examines general forms which 論證s may take, which forms are valid, and which are 謬誤es. In philosophy, the study of logic figures in most major areas: 認識論, 倫理學, 形而上學. In mathematics and computer science, it is the study of valid 推理s within some 形式語言. Logic is also studied in 論證理論.]
數學
編輯Mathematics, in the broadest sense, is just a synonym of formal science; but traditionally mathematics means more specifically the coalition of four areas: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and analysis, which are, roughly speaking, the study of quantity, structure, space, and change.
[數學，若以最寬泛的意義而言，可等同於全部形式科學，兩者為同義詞；不過傳統上數學為算術、代數、幾何以及分析這四個領域的總稱。粗略來說，這四個領域分別以數量、結構、空間以及變化為研究對象。]
統計學
編輯Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data.[12][13] It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.[12]
[統計學研究的是數據的採集、組織與解釋。It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.]
A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.
[A 統計學家 is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline called 數理統計學, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.]
系統論
編輯Systems theory is the interdisciplinary study of systems. A system is a cohesive conglomeration of interrelated and interdependent parts which can be natural or human-made. Every system is bounded by space and time, influenced by its environment, defined by its structure and purpose, and expressed through its functioning. A system may be more than the sum of its parts if it expresses synergy or emergent behavior.
[Systems theory is the 科際整合 study of 系統s. A system is a cohesive conglomeration of interrelated and interdependent parts which can be natural or human-made. Every system is bounded by space and time, influenced by its environment, defined by its structure and purpose, and expressed through its functioning. A system may be more than the sum of its parts if it expresses 協同效應 or emergent behavior.]
Changing one part of a system may affect other parts or the whole system. It may be possible to predict these changes in patterns of behavior. For systems that learn and adapt, the growth and the degree of adaptation depend upon how well the system is engaged with its environment. Some systems support other systems, maintaining the other system to prevent failure. The goals of systems theory are to model a system's dynamics, constraints, conditions, and to elucidate principles (such as purpose, measure, methods, tools) that can be discerned and applied to other systems at every level of nesting, and in a wide range of fields for achieving optimized equifinality.[14]
[Changing one part of a system may affect other parts or the whole system. It may be possible to predict these changes in patterns of behavior. For systems that learn and adapt, the growth and the degree of 適應 depend upon how well the system is engaged with its environment. Some systems support other systems, maintaining the other system to prevent failure. The goals of systems theory are to model a system's dynamics, constraints, conditions, and to elucidate principles (such as purpose, measure, methods, tools) that can be discerned and applied to other systems at every level of nesting, and in a wide range of fields for achieving optimized equifinality.[14] ]
General systems theory is about developing broadly applicable concepts and principles, as opposed to concepts and principles specific to one domain of knowledge. It distinguishes dynamic or active systems from static or passive systems. Active systems are activity structures or components that interact in behaviours and processes. Passive systems are structures and components that are being processed. For example, a program is passive when it is a disc file and active when it runs in memory.[15] The field is related to systems thinking, machine logic, and systems engineering.
[General systems theory is about developing broadly applicable concepts and principles, as opposed to concepts and principles specific to one domain of knowledge. It distinguishes dynamic or active systems from static or passive systems. Active systems are activity structures or components that interact in behaviours and processes. Passive systems are structures and components that are being processed. For example, a program is passive when it is a disc file and active when it runs in memory.[15] The field is related to systems thinking, machine logic, and 系統工程. ]
(Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the system-theory of Niklas Luhmann.)
[系統論(systems theory) is the 跨學科研究 of 系統s in general, to elucidate principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the system-theory of Niklas Luhmann.]
In this context the word systems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through feedback. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of our body, in local and global ecosystems, and in climate.
[In this context the word systems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through 反饋. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of our body, in local and global ecosystems, and climate.]
決策論
編輯Decision theory (or the theory of choice not to be confused with choice theory) is the study of an agent's choices.[16] Decision theory can be broken into two branches: normative decision theory, which analyzes the outcomes of decisions or determines the optimal decisions given constraints and assumptions, and descriptive decision theory, which analyzes how agents actually make the decisions they do.
[決策論(decision theory) (or the theory of choice not to be confused with 選擇理論)研究的是決策者的抉擇[14]。決策論可分為兩支：規範性決策論，分析決策的後果，或在給定的限制條件和假定下給出最優決策；以及描述性決策論，分析決策者是如何作出其決策的。]
Decision theory is closely related to the field of game theory[17] and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by economists, statisticians, psychologists, biologists,[18] political and other social scientists, philosophers,[19] and computer scientists.
[決策論與博弈論有密切關聯[15]，是一個交叉學科，其研究者包括經濟學家、統計學家、心理學家、生物學家[16]、政治學及其他社會科學學者、哲學家[17]和計算機科學家。]
Empirical applications of this rich theory are usually done with the help of statistical and econometric methods.
[這個內容豐富的理論的實證應用通常需要藉助統計學和計量經濟學的方法來完成。]
(Decision theory in economics, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, and statistics is concerned with identifying the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in a given decision, its rationality, and the resulting optimal decision. It is very closely related to the field of game theory. )
[決策論(decision theory) in economics, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, and statistics is concerned with identifying the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in a given decision, its rationality, and the resulting optimal decision. It is very closely related to the field of 博弈論.]
理論計算機科學
編輯Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing, and includes the theory of computation.
It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. The ACM's Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the following description:[20]
TCS covers a wide variety of topics including algorithms, data structures, computational complexity, parallel and distributed computation, probabilistic computation, quantum computation, automata theory, information theory, cryptography, program semantics and verification, machine learning, computational biology, computational economics, computational geometry, and computational number theory and algebra. Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique and rigor.
[理論計算機科學 (TCS) 為一般的計算機科學與數學所共有的一些子學科，關注的是計算的更偏於數學方面的課題，包括計算理論。
此領域的範圍不易精確劃定。美國計算機協會 (ACM) 的算法與計算理論特別興趣小組 (SIGACT) 給出了如下描述[14]：
TCS涵蓋範圍寬廣，其課題包括算法、數據結構、計算複雜性、並行計算與分佈式計算，概率式計算(probabilistic computation)、量子計算、自動機理論、信息論、密碼學、程序的語義及驗證、機器學習、計算生物學、計算經濟學、計算幾何、計算數論和計算機代數。這個領域的工作常以其對數學方法及數學嚴格性的強調為特徵。
]
自然科學
編輯Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances.
Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth science. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements which can be explained as clear statements of the "laws of nature".[21]
[自然科學為科學的一個分支，所關注的是以從觀察和實驗中獲得的經驗證據為基礎來描述、預期和理解自然現象。諸如同行評議和所宣稱之發現的可重複性等機制被用來儘可能保證科學進展的可查證性。
自然科學可分作兩支：生命科學和物理科學。生命科學也稱作生物學，而物理科學又分為物理學、化學、天文學和地球科學等分支。這些分支又可繼續細分為更專業的分支（或稱領域）。自然科學屬於經驗科學，而用到由形式科學提供的工具如邏輯、數學等，將有關自然的信息轉換為測量結果，再用陳述為清晰形式的「自然定律」來解釋這些結果[11]。]
物理科學
編輯Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics.
[物理科學為一總括性的術語，指自然科學中研究無生命系統的那些分支，而與生命科學相對。不過這種劃分在一定程度上是隨意而且模糊的，因為物理科學的許多分支也研究生物現象。注意物理科學與物理學不是一回事。]
物理學
編輯Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter[註 2] and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force.[23] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.[24][25][註 3]
[物理學是一門自然科學，致力於研究物質及其在時空中的運動，還有諸如能量和力等等的相關概念。廣義而言，物理學是對自然界進行的一般分析，以理解宇宙如何運行。]
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.[註 4] Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right.[註 5] Certain research areas are interdisciplinary, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, which means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy.
[物理學為最古老的學術領域之一；如果把天文學也算進去，則或許連「之一」都可以去掉。過去兩千多年間，物理學與數學的某些分支、化學以及生物學一樣，皆屬自然哲學的一部分。不過，在16世紀的科學革命中，諸門自然科學逐漸發展為獨立的研究領域。其中某些是跨學科的，例如生物物理學和量子化學，所以說物理學的邊界並不能嚴格的限定。從19世紀到20世紀，物理主義開始作為科學哲學主要的統一特徵而出現，因為物理學為每一種觀察到的自然現象給出了基本解釋。物理學中的新觀念，除了能夠解釋其它科學的底層機制，還為數學和哲學開闢了新的研究領域。]
化學
編輯Chemistry is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.[26][27] It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon based). Example sub-disciplines of chemistry include: biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system.
[化學是研究物質及其變化的科學。物理學也是研究物質的科學，不過關注的是更為一般和基本的層面；化學與之相比則更為專門化，關注的是物質的成分、行為（或反應）、結構、性質，以及它們在化學反應中所起的變化，是研究各種各樣的化學物質、原子、分子以及物質（特別是碳基物質）的物理科學。化學的子學科舉例：生物化學，研究生物體內發現的化學物質；物理化學，運用諸如熱力學及量子力學等物理概念來研究化學過程；以及分析化學，對物料樣品進行分析，從而了解其化學成分和結構。近年又出現許多更為專門的子學科，例如神經化學研究的是神經系統中的化學。]
地球科學
編輯Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.[28] It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, geography, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state.
[地球科學，亦稱地學，是一個總括性的術語，指與地球這顆行星相關的所有科學。地球科學可以說是行星科學的一個特例，因為地球是已知唯一承載着生命的行星。地球科學的研究途徑，既有還原主義的，也有整體主義的。地球科學的常規研究對象包括大氣圈、水圈、岩石圈、生物圈，以及固體地球。研究地學的科學家通常會運用來自物理學、化學、生物學、地理學、年代學以及數學的工具，以建立對於地球系統如何運行以及如何演化至其當前狀態的定量化理解。]
地質學
編輯Geology (from the Ancient Greek γῆ, gē ("earth") and -λoγία, -logia, ("study of", "discourse")[29][30]) is an Earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology and the atmospheric sciences, and so is treated as one major aspect of integrated Earth system science and planetary science.
[地質學為地球科學的分支，研究對象為固體地球，包括組成它的各種岩石及其在地質史中的變遷。地質學也可以把關於任何類地行星或衛星（如火星和月球）的固體部分的研究包括進來。當代的地質學與所有其它地球科學皆有顯著的交叉，其中包括水文學與大氣科學。因此地質學可以視作綜合性的地球系統科學乃至行星科學的主要組成部分之一。]
海洋學
編輯Oceanography, or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics as well as geography.
[海洋學，或稱作海洋科學，是地球科學的分支，研究海洋。海洋學涵蓋面廣，其研究課題包括海生生物及生態系統動力學；洋流、海浪和地球物理流體動力學；板塊構造及海底地質學；以及各種化學物質與物理性質在海洋中及穿越海洋邊界的通量。這多種多樣的課題反映出海洋學家為加深對世界海洋及發生在其中的過程的的認識和理解而運用的多門學科：生物學、化學、地質學、氣象學、物理學以及地理學。]
氣象學
編輯Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.
[氣象學是以大氣為研究對象的跨學科科學研究。這個領域的研究史雖可回溯至數千年前，不過直到17世紀，氣象學才有了長足進步。到了19世紀，在幾個國家的氣象觀測網絡建立以後，氣象學迎來突破。20世紀後半葉計算機技術的發展則使氣象學在天氣預報方面取得突破。]
空間科學或天文學
編輯Space science, or astronomy, is the study of everything in outer space.[31] This has sometimes been called astronomy, but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields,[32] such as studying issues related to space travel and space exploration (including space medicine), space archaeology[33] and science performed in outer space (see space research).
[空間科學，或天文學，研究的是存在於外太空的一切事物。這門學科往往被稱作天文學，不過近年來天文學已經逐漸被視作更廣泛的空間科學的一部分，後者在發展中將其它相關領域也包括了進來，例如研究與太空旅行及空間探索相關的課題（包括太空醫學）、太空考古學以及在外太空里進行的科學研究（參見「太空科研」）。]
生命科學
編輯Life science, also known as biology, is the natural science that studies life and living organisms – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings, – including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development and evolution.[34] Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the creation and extinction of species. Living organisms are open systems that survive by transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy[35] to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis.[36]
[生命科學，亦稱作生物學，為研究生命及活的有機體——如微生物、植物、動物（包括人在內）——的自然科學，包括其生理結構、化學過程、分子相互作用、生理學機制、發育以及進化。[22]生命科學雖然龐雜，一些統一概念卻將其整合為一門單一而連貫的學問。生物學認為細胞是生命的基本單位，基因是遺傳的基本單位，而進化是推動物種之創生和絕滅的引擎。活的有機體是一個開放系統，其生存方式是通過能量的轉化以降低其局部的熵，[23]從而維持所謂體內平衡，即一個穩定且有活力的狀態。[24] ]
生物化學
編輯Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.[37] It is a sub-discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from a reductionist point of view it is fundamental in biology. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, and physiology.
[生物化學研究的是發生在活的有機體內及與之相關的化學過程；它既屬於化學也屬於生物學，而以還原主義的觀點來看，生物化學在生物學中佔有基礎地位。生物化學與分子生物學、細胞生物學、遺傳學以及生理學等學科密切相關。]
微生物學
編輯Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology and parasitology.
[微生物學研究的是微生物，其中有單細胞的，有多細胞的，乃至還有非細胞（缺乏細胞結構）的。微生物學涵蓋了為數眾多的子學科，其中包括病毒學、細菌學、原生生物學、真菌學、免疫學以及寄生蟲學。]
植物學
編輯Botany, also called plant science(s), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants),[38] and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes.[39]
[植物學，或稱植物科學，為研究植物的生物學分支。傳統上，植物學亦包括分別研究真菌和藻類的真菌學和藻類學，而當前國際植物學大會的研討範圍也依然涵蓋植物、真菌和藻類。目前，（狹義上的）植物學家所研究的陸生植物約有41萬種，其中維管植物約有39.1萬種（包括約36.9萬種開花植物）[1]，以及約2萬種苔蘚植物。[2] ]
動物學
編輯Zoology is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. Some branches of zoology include: anthrozoology, arachnology, archaeozoology, cetology, embryology, entomology, helminthology, herpetology, histology, ichthyology, malacology, mammalogy, morphology, nematology, ornithology, palaeozoology, pathology, primatology, protozoology, taxonomy, and zoogeography.
[動物學為研究動物界的生物學分支，包括所有（無論是現生的還是絕滅了的）種類動物的結構、胚胎學、進化、分類、習性、分佈，以及它們與所在生態系統的相互作用。以下為動物學的一些分支：人與動物關係學、蛛形動物學、動物考古學、鯨類學、胚胎學、昆蟲學、蠕蟲學、兩棲爬行動物學、組織學、魚類學、軟體動物學、哺乳動物學、形態學、線蟲學、鳥類學、古動物學、病理學、靈長類學、原生動物學、分類學以及動物地理學。]
生態學
編輯Ecology (from 希臘語：οἶκος, "house", or "environment"; -λογία, "study of")[註 6] is a branch of biology[40] concerning interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment, which includes both biotic and abiotic components. Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species. Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits.
[生態學為生物學的分支[1]，研究的是生物體之間以及它們與其周邊的生態環境（其中既包括生物因子也包括非生物因子）之間的相互作用。生態學關注的課題包括生物多樣性、生物的分佈、生物量、生物體種群，以及物種內部和物種之間的合作與競爭。生態系統是由生物體和它們所組成的群落以及其環境中的非生物因子所共同構成的動態相互作用系統。生態系統中的過程，如初級生產、成土作用、營養循環以及生態位構建，調節着一個環境中能量與物質的通量。而這些過程是由具有特定生活史特徵的生物體來維持的。]
社會科學
編輯Social science is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, human geography, linguistics, management science, media studies, political science, psychology, and social history.
[社會科學是科學的一個分支，致力於研究社會以及身處其中的 個體之間的關係。「社會科學」這個詞曾經指的是社會學，即初始意義上的「關於社會的科學」，創立於19世紀。當前，除了社會學以外，範圍寬廣的一系列學術領域也都歸入社會科學，其中包括人類學、考古學、經濟學、人文地理、語言學、管理科學、媒體研究、政治科學、心理學以及社會史。]
Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research). The term "social research" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.
[ 實證主義社會科學學者採用與自然科學中類似的方法來考察社會，由是科學便定義在其較為嚴格的現代意義上。與之相反，解釋主義社會科學學者更傾向於運用社會批判或符號解釋，而不是構建經驗上可證偽的理論；這樣的做法則是在一種更寬泛的意義上來定義科學。在當代的學術實踐中，研究者們往往採取折衷主義，使用複合的方法論（例如將定量研究與定性研究結合起來）。而「社會研究」這個詞現在也具備了一定的自治性，因為其目標和方法被來自各種不同領域的從業者所共同採納。]
應用科學
編輯Applied science is the use of existing scientific knowledge to practical goals, like technology or inventions.
Within natural science, disciplines that are basic science develop basic information to explain and perhaps predict phenomena in the natural world. Applied science is the use of scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a particular practical or useful result. This includes a broad range of applied science related fields, including engineering and medicine.
Applied science can also apply formal science, such as statistics and probability theory, as in epidemiology. Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods.
[應用科學是將既有的科學知識運用於實際目的，如技術和發明。
在自然科學的範疇中，屬於基礎研究的那些學科是積累基本信息，從而解釋，以及如有可能的話，預言自然現象。而應用科學則是以科學的過程和知識為手段，用來達成特定的實用結果。是故應用科學的相關領域包羅甚廣，工程學和醫學皆在其中。
各分支之間的關係
編輯以下表格概括了各個科學分支之間的關係：
| 科學 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| 形式科學 | 經驗科學 | ||
| 自然科學 | 社會科學 | ||
| 基礎 | 邏輯學、數學、統計學 | 物理學、化學、生物學、地球科學、空間科學 | 經濟學、政治學、社會學、心理學 |
| 應用 | 計算機科學 | 工程學、農學、醫學、牙醫學、藥學 | 工商管理、法學、教育學 |
參見
編輯- Index of branches of science
- List of words ending in ology
- Outline of science
- Branches of philosophy
- Engineering science
- Moral science
[
]
註釋
編輯- ^ Also related to λόγος (logos), "word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle." (Liddell and Scott, 1999).
- ^ Richard Feynman begins his Lectures with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations ..., what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. ..." [22]
- ^ The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.
- ^ Evidence exists that the earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, Ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a very basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
- ^ Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method.
- ^ In Ernst Haeckel's (1866) footnote where the term ecology originates, he also gives attribute to 古希臘語：χώρας，羅馬化：khōrā，直譯：χωρα, meaning "dwelling place, distributional area" —quoted from Stauffer (1957).
引用
編輯腳註
編輯- ^ social science | History, Disciplines, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. [2020-08-18] （英語）.[需要較佳來源]
- ^ Popper 2002，第20頁.
- ^ Davide Castelvecchi, Nature Magazine. Is String Theory science?. Scientific American. 2015-12-23 [2018-04-03].
- ^ Editorial Staff. Psychology's reproducibility problem. Nature. 2016-03-03 [2018-04-03].
- ^ see: Editorial Staff. Scientific Method: Relationships among Scientific Paradigms. Seed magazine. March 7, 2008 [2007-09-12].
- ^ Popper 2002，第79–82頁.
- ^ Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. 1940. "Logikos." A Greek–English Lexicon, edited by H. S. Jones with R. McKenzie. Oxford: Clarendon Press. – via Perseus Project. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- ^ Harper, Douglas. 2020 [2001]. "logic (n.)." Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
- ^ Gensler, Harry J. Chapter 1: Introduction. Introduction to logic 3rd. New York: Routledge. 2017: 1 [2002]. ISBN 9781138910591. OCLC 957680480. doi:10.4324/9781315693361.
- ^ Hofweber, T. Logic and Ontology. Zalta, Edward N (編). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2004.
- ^ Cox, J. Robert; Willard, Charles Arthur (編). Advances in Argumentation Theory and Research. Southern Illinois University Press. 1983. ISBN 978-0-8093-1050-0.
- ^ 12.0 12.1 Dodge, Y. (2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN 0-19-920613-9
- ^ statistics. TheFreeDictionary.com. [2020-08-25] （英語）.
- ^ Beven, K. (2006). A manifesto for the equifinality thesis. Journal of hydrology, 320(1), 18-36.
- ^ Paolo Rocchi. Technology + Culture. IOS Press. 2000. ISBN 978-1-58603-035-3.
- ^ Steele, Katie and Stefánsson, H. Orri, "Decision Theory", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = [1]
- ^ Myerson, Roger B. 1.2: Basic concepts of Decision Theory. Game theory analysis of conflict. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1991. ISBN 9780674728615.
- ^ Habibi I, Cheong R, Lipniacki T, Levchenko A, Emamian ES, Abdi A. Computation and measurement of cell decision making errors using single cell data. PLOS Computational Biology. April 2017, 13 (4): e1005436. Bibcode:2017PLSCB..13E5436H. PMC 5397092
. PMID 28379950. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005436.
- ^ Hansson, Sven Ove. "Decision theory: A brief introduction." (2005) Section 1.2: A truly interdisciplinary subject.
- ^ SIGACT. [2017-01-19].
- ^ Lagemaat 2006，第283頁.
- ^ R.P. Feynman; R.B. Leighton; Matthew Sands. The Feynman Lectures on Physics 1. 1963: I-2. ISBN 0-201-02116-1.
- ^
J.C. Maxwell. Matter and Motion. D. Van Nostrand. 1878: 9. ISBN 0-486-66895-9.
Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.
- ^
H.D. Young; R.A. Freedman. University Physics with Modern Physics 11th. Addison-Wesley. 2004: 2.
Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles.
- ^
S. Holzner. Physics for Dummies. Wiley. 2006: 7. ISBN 0-470-61841-8.
Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.
- ^ Definition of CHEMISTRY. www.merriam-webster.com. [2020-08-24] （英語）.
- ^ Definition of chemistry | Dictionary.com. www.dictionary.com. [2020-08-24] （英語）.
- ^ WordNet Search: Earth science. wordnetweb.princeton.edu. [2020-08-24].
- ^ Harper, Douglas. geology. Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^ γῆ. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
- ^ space science. TheFreeDictionary.com. [2020-08-23].
- ^ National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC) – NASA Science
- ^ Space science | Define Space science at Dictionary.com
- ^ Based on definition from: Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms. Texas State University at San Marcos. （原始內容存檔於2004-06-08）.
- ^ Davies, PC; Rieper, E; Tuszynski, JA. Self-organization and entropy reduction in a living cell. Bio Systems. January 2013, 111 (1): 1–10. PMC 3712629 . PMID 23159919. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2012.10.005.
- ^ Modell, Harold; Cliff, William; Michael, Joel; McFarland, Jenny; Wenderoth, Mary Pat; Wright, Ann. A physiologist's view of homeostasis. Advances in Physiology Education. December 2015, 39 (4): 259–66. ISSN 1043-4046. PMC 4669363 . PMID 26628646. doi:10.1152/advan.00107.2015.
- ^ Biological/Biochemistry. acs.org.
- ^ RBG Kew (2016). The State of the World's Plants Report – 2016. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. https://stateoftheworldsplants.com/report/sotwp_2016.pdf 互聯網檔案館的存檔，存檔日期2016-09-28.
- ^ The Plant List – Bryophytes.
- ^ the definition of ecology. Dictionary.com. [20 February 2018]. （原始內容存檔於21 February 2018）.
著作
編輯- Lagemaat, Richard van de. Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-54298-2.
- Popper, Karl R. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. New York, NY: Routledge Classics. 2002 [1959]. ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149.
- Sandoz, R. (ed.), Interactive Historical Atlas of the Disciplines, University of Geneva