法 (印度哲学)

梵语धर्मdharma巴利语धम्मdhamma),音译为达摩,是在印度哲学宗教中极其重要的一个含义多变的术语。

在传统印度社会中,法在历史上已经指称了各种思想,比如吠陀仪式,道德指导、种姓制度和民法与刑法。它的最常用含义附属著两个基本思想: 社会生活应当通过良好定义或良好调控的等级(varna)来组织,而在某等级内的个人的生活应当组织成确定的阶段(ashrama,参见 dharmasastra)。[1]

依据各种印度宗教,比如印度教佛教耆那教锡克教,如法生活的人更快趋向解脱(dharma yukam, moksha 或 nirvana)。而不如法(adharma)意味着不和谐、不道德或错误(即堕落)。

佛教创始人佛陀及耆那教创始人大雄的教导和学说,也使用法这个术语。在佛教哲学中,法还是含义为现象的术语。[2]

语源

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法的梵语字根来自dhr-,意思为保持、支撑,并且和拉丁语表示坚固、稳定的词汇firmus相关[3],由此得来“既定、公认的惯例”以及“律法”的意思。其源自古老的吠陀梵语梨俱吠陀等),拼法为带有n-词干dharman-,字面意思为承担者、支撑者,而这是指吠陀宗教中的重要概念──ṛta英语Ṛta/ˈrɪtə/; 梵语 ऋत ṛta,秩序、规则、真理)的面向而言[4]阿维斯陀语中表示真实、正确、秩序的词汇aṣ̌a英语Asha(𐬀𐬴𐬀)为ṛta的同源词,在古波斯语中拼作arta(𐎠𐎼𐎫)。

古典梵语和最晚成立的吠陀书──阿闼婆吠陀,其拼法是dharma。而在普拉克里特诸语言(古印度俗语)和巴利语中的拼法则是dhamma。在阿育王诏书的古石刻文书坎达哈双语岩石铭文英语Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription中,用古希腊语eusebeia英语Eusebeia(εὐσέβεια,虔诚、灵性的成熟、恭敬神明)和亚兰语qšyṭʾ(קשיטא,真理、真实),来翻译印度的宗教哲学词汇──法[5][6]

印度教

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印度教的语境中,它意味着一个人的正当义务与责任,[43]印度宗教的法受个人的年龄、等级、职业和性别的影响。[44]在现代印度语言中依赖于语境,它可以简单的等价于“宗教”。

佛教

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参考文献

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  1. ^ Ainslie Thomas Embree, Stephen N. Hay, William Theodore De Bary, Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan. Columbia University Press, 1988, page 215.
  2. ^ David Kalupahana. The Philosophy of the Middle Way. SUNY Press, 1986, pages 15-16: "The old Indian term dharma was retained by the Buddha to refer to phenomena or things. However, he was always careful to define this dharma as "dependently arisen phenomena" (paticca-samuppanna-dhamma) ... In order to distinguish this notion of dhamma from the Indian conception where the term dharma meant reality (atman), in an ontological sense, the Buddha utilized the conception of result or consequence or fruit (attha, Sk. artha) to bring out the pragmatic meaning of dhamma."
  3. ^ Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, Barnhart, R. K., editor (1998).
  4. ^ Day, Terence P. The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature. 1982: 42-45. 
  5. ^ How did the 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata' come to be (and what has 'dharma' got to do with it)?. [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2018-12-16). 
  6. ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf. Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative. Oxford University Press, USA. 2011: 36–37 [2021-05-26]. ISBN 978-0-19-539423-8. (原始内容存档于2021-10-31) (英语). 
  7. ^ Ṛgveda(Rigveda) - The Veda. [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-26). 
  8. ^ 𑀥𑀁𑀫. wiktionary. [2021-05-18]. (原始内容存档于2021-04-15). 
  9. ^ * Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch. 1925: 56–57 (Sanskrit). 
  10. ^ Mon - Aksharamukha. [2021-05-27]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-27). 
  11. ^ * Ahom - Aksharamukha. [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-26). 
  12. ^ Tai Tham Ad-hoc Meeting Report (PDF). [2021-06-14]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-10-09). 
  13. ^ Denise Cush; Michael York; Catherine Robinson. Encyclopedia of Hinduism. 2012: 455 [2021-06-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-14). For instance, if we find Hindi speakers talking of dharm, Bengalis of dhormo, and Tamils of tharumam, it is useful to know that these are all tatsama forms of the same Sanskrit word dharma. 
  14. ^ * File:Sri Yashodharman.jpg. [2021-05-28]. (原始内容存档于2021-08-31). 
  15. ^ * 义净. 梵語千字文 (東京東洋文庫本). [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-18). 
  16. ^ * Anshuman Pandey. Final proposal to encode Nandinagari in Unicode (PDF). [2021-05-28]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-21). 
  17. ^ Shriramana Sharma. Proposal to encode characters for Extended Tamil (PDF). [2021-06-10]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-06-10). 
  18. ^ Dieter Maue. Non-Indian Brāhmī scripts along the Silk Roads. 2010 [2021-06-04]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-04). 
  19. ^ * Bali lontar - Palm Leaf Wiki. [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-05). 
  20. ^ Javanese character notes - r12a. [2021-05-27]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-27). 
  21. ^ 吴昭新. 新編台灣閩南語用字彙編 (PDF). [2021-06-17]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-05-05). 达:tat8 ……无、么、摩、磨:moo5 
  22. ^ ta̍t 的发音: môo 的发音:
  23. ^ * Georgios T. Halkias. When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfers of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures. [2021-06-07]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-07). Greco-Bactrian inscription at Jaḡatu, afghanistan, of the sanskrit refuge formula to the “three-jewels” 
  24. ^ Budhist Terminology in Sogdian (PDF). [2021-06-04]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-08-31). 
  25. ^ Georgios T. Halkias. When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfers of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures. 2014 [2021-06-02]. (原始内容存档于2019-06-07). In later bilingual Indian-Greek coins, dharma is equated with the Greek word dikē (δίκη), right or justice and is not restricted to eusebeia (εὐσέβεια). 
  26. ^ * UNESCO Staff. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. 1994: 400 [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-26). 
  27. ^ Michaël Peyrot. Points of Tocharian Agramma (PDF). [2021-06-04]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-06-04). 
  28. ^ Tocharian word of the week: "dharma". 
  29. ^ Mauro Maggi. A folio of the Ratnakūṭa (Kāśyapaparivarta) in Khotanese. 法鼓佛学学报. 2015 [2021-06-05]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-06). 
  30. ^ The Turkic Peoples of Central Asia and Buddhism. [2021-06-04]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-04). Tremblay made the point that both the Uyghur and the Manichaean Sogdian terms were independently copied from spoken Buddhist Sogdian. The frequent usage of nwm for Skt. dharma instead of the Buddhist Sogdian loanword δrm in Uyghur Buddhist texts would point in the same direction: nwm 
  31. ^ * Peter Zieme. The first leaf of an Old Uyghur 觀無量壽經 Guanwuliangshoujing translation. Written Monuments of the Orient. 2020 [2021-06-05]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-05). 
  32. ^ Edited by Khulan D. English-Mongolian Buddhist Glossary. [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-26). 
  33. ^ 庄吉发. 國立故宮博物院典藏《大藏經》滿文譯本研究. 东方宗教研究. 1990 [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-02-27). “法轮”,满文译作"nomun i kurdun"……“而为沙门,受佛法者”,满文译作"fucihi i nomun be aliha sarmana" ,意即“受佛法之沙门” 
  34. ^ 西夏文 - 古今文字集成. [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-21). 
  35. ^ * Heleen Plaisier. 3. Unravelling Lepcha manuscripts. [2021-06-02]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-28). In the titles of Lepcha works......cho (book, learning)......These designations are obviously direct loans from equivalent categories in Tibetan literature......Chos......Indeed, a Lepcha book, referred to as cho, typically conveys a canonical message 
  36. ^ * 臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 - 法. [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-26). 
  37. ^ David Wharton. Language, Orthography and Buddhist Manuscript Culture of the Tai Nuea – An Apocryphal Jātaka Text in Mueang Sing, Laos. University of Passau. 2018: 240 [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-02-04). 
  38. ^ Stephen Morey. Ahom and Tangsa: Case studies of language maintenance and loss in North East India (PDF). Language Documentation & Conservation. 2014, 7 [2021-06-20]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-11-14). 
  39. ^ Marseille, Carmen Eva. Shan-Ni grammar and processes of linguistic change. 2019: 34 [2021-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-05-26). 
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 * d'Hubert, Thibaut. A Persian Account of the Religious Customs of the Magh (Arakanese) from Early Colonial Bengal. Iranian Studies. 2018 [2021-06-03]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-03). By the blessing of Tārā (i.e Dharma)......The term tārā transcribes the Arakanese/Burmese tarāḥ, which may be translated as "precept"or "law". This is the same term used by the Chakmas to designate the ritual texts called Āgar tārā, that the Luris used to recite on various occasions. 
  41. ^ Vinodh Rajan. Aksharamukha : Script Converter. [2021-06-01]. (原始内容存档于2021-07-05). 
  42. ^ polyhedron. 做了一個滿文阿禮嘎禮的輸入法. [2021-05-31]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-03). 
  43. ^ Carol Henderson Garcia Culture and customs of India. 2002, page 31
  44. ^ Brodd, Jefferey. World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.