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福爾諾沃戰役
第一次意大利戰爭的一部分

《Bataille de Fornoue，6 juillet 1495》，法王查理八世和巴亞爾騎士
日期1495年7月6日
地點
意大利艾米利亞福爾諾沃
結果 法國勝利[1]
參戰方
法蘭西王國 法國瓦盧瓦王朝
指揮官與領導者
兵力
10,000-11,000人[2][3] 20,000-21,500人[4][2][5]
傷亡與損失
100人死亡[5][2]
200人受傷[5][2]		 3,350-4,000人死亡[5][2][6]
2,500人受傷

福爾諾沃戰役（法語：Bataille de Fornoue）發生於1495年7月6日，是第一次意大利戰爭期間在帕爾馬城西北處爆發的戰役。由法王查理八世率領的法國軍隊在福爾諾沃擊敗威尼斯聯盟具有人數優勢的部隊。這場勝利使法軍得以推進至阿斯蒂，並返回法國。

法國在戰爭初期利用先進的火砲技術和職業部隊，迅速征服大量義大利城邦與那不勒斯王國。但隨著戰爭進行，法軍缺乏補給並爆發了瘧疾，義大利地區各邦對法國的敵意也逐漸升高，許多歐洲國家組成聯盟以阻止法國的擴張，這一系列的危機迫使查理八世撤退回國。威尼斯聯盟嘗試阻止法軍的撤退，但被法軍優越的騎兵部隊擊潰。

背景

編輯

1494年，查理八世作為一名僅有24歲的王者，統治者中世紀歐洲最強大的國家。他將自己視為基督教歐洲的拯救者，相信他能夠扭轉奧斯曼帝國不斷擴展的征服。他決心將南意大利地區作為他的聖戰基地。他隨後通過祖母安茹的瑪麗的繼承權宣稱他對那不勒斯王國的所有權，以獲得佔領的法理依據。[7]

為了能不受干擾，查理與臨國簽訂了各種協議，確保征服行動不被干預。他給予英格蘭國王亨利七世現金，[8] 將魯西永交給阿拉貢的費迪南，還將阿圖瓦和弗朗什-孔泰交給帝國皇帝馬克西米利安。交出這些領土可以看出查理的短視。但他願意承受如此代價以建立他的東征基地。

先前戰事

編輯

1494年8月末，查理八世發動閃電戰，利用法軍強大的近代軍隊和瑞士僱傭兵的增援，迅速橫掃整個義大利，而法軍的機動野戰砲部隊更將義大利地區的中世紀城牆轟得粉碎。在這當中，他得到了米蘭的自由通行權，但受到佛羅倫薩、教宗國和那不勒斯王國的強烈反對。

1495年2月22日，查理八世和他的將軍路易·德·拉特雷穆瓦耶（英語：Louis II de la Trémoille）在幾乎沒有抵抗的情況下進入那不勒斯。戰役的速度和暴力程度讓意大利人震驚，威尼斯共和國和米蘭公爵盧多維科·斯福爾扎等人意識到，如果不能阻止查理的進軍，意大利很快就會成為法國的行省。3月31日，神聖同盟成立，[9]簽署人包括威尼斯共和國、米蘭公國、教宗國、阿拉貢和卡斯提爾君合國、神聖羅馬帝國和英格蘭王國。[10]

戰略性撤退

編輯

The League engaged a veteran condottiero, Francesco II of Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua to gather an army and expel the French from Italy. Upon hearing the news of the coalition assembled against him, Charles VIII left behind a garrisoning force in Naples and marched north with the remainder of his army, his artillery train and the considerable booty seized in the campaign thus far in order to join a smaller army under Louis II, Duke of Orléans in Piedmont in north-western Italy.

 
The Battle of Fornovo in the Gallery of Maps (Vatican Museums)

On 27 June the Venetians and their allies established camp near Fornovo di Taro (44°41′N 10°06′E / 44.683°N 10.100°E / 44.683; 10.100), some 30 km southwest of Parma, to wait for the French. They would not have to wait long, but the Venetian Senate was not unanimous on fighting the French. Some members wanted to attack the rear guard of the French to try to seize their loot, while others cautioned that Italy was risking too much in this battle as this was just one French army and others could potentially be called upon.

On July 4, Ercole d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, Charles' strongest ally in Italy, wrote to him and informed him that the Senate had not yet decided on an action. But Charles was anxious, seeing the enemy numbers growing, while he himself had no hope of reinforcements for the time being. When an effort to sway the undecided forces of Parma was thwarted by the Venetians, Charles instead sent a messenger to request free passage to return to France, but the Venetians replied that he would have to restore all his conquests before such could be considered. The messenger, having scouted the troops, reported back to Charles. The 40 soldiers Charles subsequently sent to reconnoiter were attacked and quickly routed by the Stradioti, mostly Albanian mercenaries from the Balkans.[11]

Two days later, on July 6, Charles decided to offer battle because the French were short of provisions. South of Milan, the path of his army of some 10,000 French and Swiss was blocked by 20,000 Venetians and Mantuans under Gonzaga.[3] Melchiorre Trevisan promised the League soldiers the spoils of battle if they were victorious, igniting their combat ardor. Francesco Gonzaga divided his forces into nine lines. His battle plan was to distract the first and middle groups of the French with two lines while outflanking the rear. Once the French groups were disorganized, the rest of the Italian troops would attack. The League's overall goal was the complete destruction of the French army.[a][14]

交戰

編輯

The League army took position on the right side of the Taro river and the French decided to keep to the left bank. Charles organized his army in battle groups. The first section consisted of about 2,500 men and was led by Marshal Gie and Gian Giacomo Trivulzio.[15] The second and largest section, led by Englebert of Cleves and Antoine de Bessey, consisted of 3000 infantry, 300 dismounted archers and 200 crossbowman.[15] The final section, about 1,750 men, was led by Jean de Foix. There was in addition a large infantry force of spearmen. The French artillery was arranged in front of the first line, as well as on the side of the Taro, protecting the second line.[16] The League's right wing was commanded by Count Caiazzo with 400 Milanes men-at-arms and 2000 infantry, with 180 Bolognese men-at-arms in reserve.[17] The central division consisted of 492 men-at-arms and 600 mounted crossbowmen under the command of Francesco Gonzaga, while keeping a large contingent of cavalry in reserve.[18] The left wing, commanded by Fortebraccio di Montone, had 352 Venetian men-at-arms supported by cavalry.[18] Also in the center were 4,000 Venetian foot and 1,000 Mantuan infantry, with a contingent of 600 Stradioti on the French left flank.[18]

The French opened with an artillery bombardment, intending to kill as many of their opponents as possible.[19] Then they charged with their heavy cavalry, destroying and scattering the disordered Italian ranks in just minutes.[6] The fight was perhaps more memorable for the ineffectiveness of artillery on either side, other than the psychological effect achieved by the French guns.[b] Of the French and Italian casualties,[c] one eyewitness estimated that fewer than 10 men were killed by cannon fire.[6]

After the battle, Charles then marched on into Lombardy and returned to France.[2]

結果

編輯

Both parties strove to present themselves as the victors in the battle.[4] The battle was reported in Venice as a victory, and was recorded and celebrated as such, which included the capture of Mathieu de Bourbon.[22] Regardless of the self-proclamations of victory by League commanders, Domenico Malipiero recognized that the League failed to stop the French from reaching Asti.[13] Francesco Gonzaga claimed victory and the ordered the portrait of the Madonna della Vittoria,[23] while the Italian historian Francesco Guicciardini's judgement was to award the palm of victory to the French.[d][4] Privately, Gonzaga confessed to his wife that the battle was a near run thing and that if the French had turned on them, the League's forces would have been destroyed.[24] A week later, Bernardino Fortebraccio spoke to the Venetian senate, stating the League's army could have defeated the French if their troops would have stayed in the battle and left the baggage train alone.[25]

The French had won their battle, fighting off superior numbers and proceeding on their march to Asti.[e][f][27][26][28][4] The League took much higher casualties and could not prevent the French army from crossing Italian lands on its way back to France.[28]

後果

編輯

On the same day as the battle was fought, Ferdinand II appeared before Naples with a Spanish fleet; he re-entered and occupied Naples the following day. He was welcomed with rejoicing by the citizens, as the French had made themselves hated through their behaviour. Pope Alexander VI denounced the French as having committed worse crimes in Italy than had the Goths. Already under threat of excommunication, Charles VIII was ordered to lay down his arms and promote the peace of Christendom by the pope. Alexander also wrote to the Venetians to congratulate them on winning "immortal fame" by their liberation of Italy.[29]

Charles left Italy abandoning all his conquests. He attempted in the next few years to rebuild his army, but was hampered by the serious debts incurred by the previous one, and he never succeeded in recouping anything substantive. He died two-and-a-half years after his retreat, of an accident, striking his head while passing through a doorway, he succumbed to a sudden coma several hours later.

Charles bequeathed a meagre legacy: he left France in debt and in disarray as a result of an ambition most charitably characterized as unrealistic, and having lost several important provinces that it would take centuries to recover. On a more positive side, his expedition did broaden contacts between French and Italian humanists, energizing French art and letters in the latter Renaissance.

Charles proved to be the last of the elder branch of the House of Valois, and upon his death at Amboise the throne passed to a cousin, the Duc d'Orléans, who reigned as King Louis XII of France, who would try to make good his clearer claim to the Duchy of Milan.

However, for Italy the consequences were catastrophic.[g] Europe knew now, from Charles' expedition, of an enormously rich land, divided into easily conquerable principalities, and defended only by mercenary armies that refused to fight with the slightest disadvantage. Italy was to be the scene of a dispute between the main continental powers, with the result that the Italians were left with only a secondary role in their own destiny. Only Venice, Genoa, the Papal States, Savoy, and Tuscany would survive as independent nations after the end of the Italian Wars, losing however their original power and stability.

註釋

編輯
  1. ^ Malipiero mentions the League's failure to stop the French from reaching Asti.[12][13]
  2. ^ The French guns stopped firing due to the rain making the powder wet.[20]
  3. ^ Paolo Giovio states 4,000 casualties for the League and 1,000 for the French, which Santosuosso believes is more accurate.[21]
  4. ^ If officially Italians celebrated the Battle of Fornovo as a victory – to the surprise of the French – privately, many were not so sure. Guicciardini’s verdict was that 『general consent awarded the palm to the French』[4]
  5. ^ The battle of Fornovo, by which Charles forced his way past the enemy who stood in his path, was not an indecisive action but a definite victory for France.[26]
  6. ^ Santosuosso states the French had won the battle, both strategically and tactically, but not decisively.[27]
  7. ^ In his work, La prima parte dell'historie del suo tempo, Giovio claimed that Italian soldiers were despised following the Leagues' defeat at Fornovo.[30]

註腳

編輯
  1. ^ Mallett & Hale 1984，第56頁.
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Tucker 2010，第361頁.
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Nolan 2006，第303頁.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Mallett & Shaw 2012，第31頁.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Dupuy 1993，第462頁.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Nolan 2006，第304頁.
  7. ^ Nicolle 2005.
  8. ^ Palmer 1994，第19頁.
  9. ^ Mallett & Shaw 2012，第27, 29頁.
  10. ^ Anderson, M. S. The Rise of Modern Diplomacy 1450–1919. London: Longman. 1993: 3. ISBN 978-0-582-21232-9. 
  11. ^ Birtachas 2018，第327-328頁.
  12. ^ Malipiero 1843，第353頁.
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 Luzio & Renier 1890，第219頁.
  14. ^ Santosuosso 1994，第232頁.
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Nicolle 2005，第52頁.
  16. ^ Oman 1987，第111頁.
  17. ^ Nicolle 2005，第56-57頁.
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Nicolle 2005，第57頁.
  19. ^ Nolan 2006，第303-304頁.
  20. ^ Santosuosso 1994，第236頁.
  21. ^ Santosuosso 1994，第246頁.
  22. ^ Santosuosso 1994，第248-249頁.
  23. ^ Kuiper 2009，第114頁.
  24. ^ Nicolle 2005，第83頁.
  25. ^ Nicolle 2005，第84頁.
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 Taylor 1921，第14頁.
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 Santosuosso 1994，第222頁.
  28. ^ 28.0 28.1 Setton 1978，第493–494頁.
  29. ^ Setton 1978，第495–496頁.
  30. ^ Santosuosso 1994，第221頁.

參考文獻

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外部連結

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